HISTORY134 - China and its Growth to Problematic Superpower: Part 1

In most of my previous history blogs, I completely ignored China and focused on the Western World - a significant limitation in some cases.  In the meantime, China has emerged as a superpower with designs to outperform the United States.  It is time to take a look at how China did it, and what this means to the U.S.

 

I’m going to divide this story into two parts.  In this blog (Part 1), after an introduction, I will discuss China’s history in three eras on the historical timeline: prehistory, ancient China, and imperial Chine, up to the year 1911.  In Part 2, I will discuss the history of modern China, from 1912, what the future of China might look like, and how this relates to the United States on the world stage.  Part 2 will end with a few interesting facts about China.

 At the end of both parts, I will list my principal sources.

 

Introduction

This introduction will describe China today; the balance of this article and Part 2 will discuss the history of China, i.e., how China evolved to its current state.

China is situated in eastern Asia on the western shore of the Pacific Ocean.  The country has an area of 3,700 square miles, making it the third-largest country in the world, bordering 14 countries.  Beijing is the capital, while Shanghai is the most populous city and largest financial center. See map below. 

Map of modern China.

China has diverse terrain, ranging from mountainous regions and high plateaus in the west to plains in the east.  It features major rivers like the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers.

After India, China is the second-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, representing 17% of the world's people.  The population includes 56 recognized ethnic groups, with Mandarin as the official language.  Cultural values are deeply rooted in Confucianism, emphasizing harmony, benevolence, and deep respect, obedience, and care for parents, elders, and ancestors.

China is the second-wealthiest country in the world, after the United States, as measured by Gross Domestic Product, and makes up around one-fifth of the world's economy.  The country is the world's largest manufacturer and exporter, as well as the second-largest importer.  China ranks high in agriculture, mining, and manufacturing, and is notably the world's largest consumer of coal and energy.

China is a communist state, with the Chinese Communist Party as its sole ruling party.  It is one of five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, and a member of numerous multilateral and regional organizations.  China is a nuclear-weapon state, with the world's largest standing army and the second-largest defense budget.  It is considered a superpower due to its influence in the fields of geopolitics, technology, manufacturing, economics, and culture.

 

Prehistory of China (1.7 M BC- 2100 BC)

The prehistory of China spans almost two million years, progressing from occupation by early human ancestors to the emergence of societies that laid the foundations for future civilization.  The prehistory period is generally divided into two major eras: the Paleolithic and the Neolithic. 

Paleolithic Era (c. 1.7 million - 10,000 years ago). This "Old Stone Age" is characterized by the arrival of early human ancestors and the development of basic stone tools.  Early humans survived by hunter-gathering, moving frequently, and living in small groups.

·         First Early Humans to Migrate out of Africa: Homo erectus arrived in the China as early as 1.7 million years ago, evidenced by the Yuanmou Man fossils in Yunnan.

·         Peking Man Remains: Discovered near Beijing (c. 770,000-400,000 years ago), Peking Man fossils show evidence of an erect posture, the use of stone tools, and potentially the controlled use of fire.

·         Modern Humans: Homo sapiens appeared in China approximately 100,000 to 80,000 years ago, with fossilized teeth found in Fuyan Cave, Hunan. 

Neolithic Era (c. 10,000 - 2100 BC). Around 10,000 years ago, China’s first societies evolved along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers, transitioning from hunter-gathering to developing agriculture and settled life, leading to the rise of complex stratified societies.

·         Early Cultures (7000-5000 BC): The Peiligang and Cishan cultures in the Yellow River valley were among the first to cultivate millet (ancient grain) and domesticate pigs. The Jiahu Site from this period yielded the world's oldest playable flutes and early "proto-writing" symbols.

·         Yangshao Culture (5000-3000 BC): Known for its elaborate painted pottery, this culture along the middle Yellow River practiced "slash-and-burn" agriculture and lived in large, organized villages.

·         Liangzhu Culture (3300-2300 BC): Settled in the Yangtze River Delta, this culture is famous for its complex water management systems and exquisite ritual jade objects. 

·         Longshan Culture (3000-1900 BC): Located along the middle and lower Yellow River valley, this culture was marked by highly advanced, thin-walled "eggshell" black pottery, and the construction of walled cities for defense, indicating rising social hierarchy and warfare.

From 2100-1600 BC, China transitioned from the prehistory period described above to the Ancient China period, when written records first appeared, and began an almost 4,000-year period of dynasties.

China is widely recognized as having the world's oldest continuous civilization, with over 3,500 years of recorded history.   That history is traditionally viewed through a cycle of dynasties, defined by a series of powerful ruling families, that rose and fell, interspersed with periods of unity and fracture.

The figure below identifies these dynasties and is provided here as a reference.

 

Ancient China (2100 BC - 221 BC)

Ancient China was a period of intense innovation and cultural development, including literature, philosophy, pottery, and urban planning.  Ancestor worship was central, along with a deep, spiritual connection to nature and the afterlife.  The ancient Chinese pioneered advancements in metallurgy, agriculture, and writing.  Ancient China was ruled by powerful, often hereditary dynasties, with a bureaucratic system developed over centuries. 

Ancient China began with the Erlitou culture, a pivotal Early Bronze Age society centered in the Yellow River valley.  This culture represents the first "state-level" society in China, and marks the rise of complex urban societies with palace complexes, specialized bronze casting, and ancestor-focused ritual, using piece-mold techniques to create vessels symbolizing power.  The Erlitou culture is often associated with the semi-mythical Xia Dynasty, and transitioned into the early Shang Dynasty, shown on the chart above. 

So, it is considered that Ancient China, originated with the legendary Xia Dynasty along the Yellow River around 2100 BC.  Ancient China lasted until China was unified in 221 BC, and the Imperial Period began.  Key eras and dynasties of Ancient China include:

·         Xia Dynasty (c. 2100-1600 BC): Considered the China’s first dynasty, though primarily known through legend, with evidence of early state formation.  Archaeological findings at Erlitou in Henan Province suggest a complex, early Bronze Age civilization, marking the transition from Neolithic to an organized state society.   It established hereditary rule.

·         Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BC): First historically verified dynasty with both written records (the earliest Chinese writing) and archaeological evidence.  Notable for bronze work, chariot warfare, an advanced stratified society, a complex state-level government, and intense ancestor worship.

Location of the Shang Dynasty around the fertile basins of the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers.

·         Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BC): The longest-ruling dynasty in Chinese history, originating from the Wei River valley, and overthrowing the Shang Dynasty.  Introduced the "Mandate of Heaven" concept of political philosophy holding that a ruling dynasty’s authority is granted by divine approval, contingent on just, virtuous governance.   This dynasty saw the rise of Confucianism and Taoism.  Key developments included widespread iron use, and increased agricultural production.

 

Confucius was a Chinese philosopher whose teachings on morality and social order formed the basis of Chinese culture.

·         Warring States Period (c. 475-221 BC): A pivotal era of intense conflict among seven major Chinese states, leading to the end of the Zhou Dynasty.  This period saw significant military, technological, and social changes, including large infantry armies, the invention of the crossbow, and the rise of the Qin state, which ultimately conquered its rivals to unify the seven states. 

In the Warring States Period, the Qin state gradually conquered its rival states to unify China.

 

Imperial China (221 BC - 1911 AD)

The history of Imperial China spans over 2,000 years, beginning with the unification of China under the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, and ending with the abdication of the last emperor in 1911.  Major achievements in Imperial China include the invention of gunpowder, paper, printing, porcelain, silk, and the compass; the establishment of the Silk Road for trade with Europe; and the building of the Great Wall for defense.  The governing system was based on merit-based civil service testing to select the most talented individuals, fostering social mobility, and creating a scholar-gentry class.  It was widely believed that an emperor's right to rule (Mandate of Heaven) was granted by divine favor, which could be lost if the ruler became corrupt or incompetent.  Dynastic eras include:

·         Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC): Founded by Qin Shi Huang, the first Chinese emperor, who unified the Warring States, establishing the first Chinese Empire.  He standardized weights, measures, currency, and the Chinese writing script; and began construction of the Great Wall.  Following the death of Qin Shi Huang, the dynasty collapsed due to harsh, oppressive policies, heavy taxation, and widespread revolts.

Qin Shi Huang unified China and became its first emperor.

·         Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD): A "golden age" that established the cultural and political foundations of the Chinese state.  Confucianism became the official state ideology, and the Silk Road was opened, linking China to the West, facilitating the trade of silk, spices, and ideas.  The Han period saw the invention of paper, the seismograph, and the water clock.  

·         Three Kingdoms Period (220-280 AD): A pivotal era in Chinese history following the collapse of the Han Dynasty.  It is defined by the struggle between the three rival states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu.  It was one of the deadliest periods in human history; census records suggest the population plummeted from roughly 50 million to 16 million, due to constant warfare and famine.  Despite the chaos, the period saw advancements like the repeating crossbow, the wooden wheelbarrow, and early mechanical engineering, including gearing and hydraulic power. 

·         Jin Dynasty (265-420 AD):  The Jin Dynasty emerged, briefly, reunifying China and officially ending the Three Kingdoms Period.  At its peak, the Chinese Empire extended from Outer Manchuria in the north, southward to the Qinling-Huaihe Line, the primary geographical and cultural dividing line between Northern and Southern China.  Over the course of the Jin's rule, their emperors adapted to Han customs, and even fortified the Great Wall against the ascendant Mongol Empire.  The Jin also oversaw several internal cultural advances, such as the revival of Confucianism.

The Great Wall China is not a single, continuous structure, but a vast network of walls, fortifications, and natural barriers, stretching across 15 northern provinces, for a total length of 13,171 miles.

·         Northern and Southern Dynasties Period (420-589 AD):  In this period of fragmentation, Northern China was ruled by a succession of five dynasties, and Southern China was ruled by four successive dynasties.  Groups in the north adopted Han Chinese culture, language, and governance.  Significant population movements of Han Chinese to the south of the Yangtze River spurred economic and cultural development in the south.  Buddhism began to significantly influence Chinese culture during this time.  Advances in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine occurred, alongside the increased use of the stirrup, which revolutionized heavy cavalry. 

Han Chinese is the world's largest ethnic group, with a population today exceeding 1.4 billion, comprising roughly 17% of the global population and 91% of China's population.

·         Sui Dynasty (589-618 AD): Short-lived dynasty that unified China after nearly four centuries of division - established by Emperor Wendi Yang.  It is best known for constructing the Grand Canal, the longest and oldest man-made waterway in the world, stretching 1,115 miles from the Chinese capital, Beijing to Hangzhou in the south.  The dynasty is also known for strengthening centralized rule.  The Sui Dynasty collapsed quickly due to overextension, heavy taxes, and failed military campaigns against Korea. 

China’s Grand Canal was a vital artery for trade, military transport, and cultural exchange that unified Northern and Southern China for over two millennia.  The “blue” line in the figure is the Grand Canal; the “red” line is another, abandoned canal.

 

·         Tang Dynasty (618-906 AD): Regarded as a cosmopolitan golden age of poetry, art, and territorial expansion.  Empress Wu Zetian, the only officially recognized female emperor, reigned during this period.  The Tang military was strong, expanding the empire's borders to include parts of Central Asia, Mongolia, and the Korean Peninsula.  This era saw the height of poetry, art, and the expansion of the Silk Road trade routes.  Woodblock printing was developed, allowing for the mass production of books.  Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism were all prevalent, with Buddhism spreading extensively across Asia.  A highly centralized, bureaucratic government was established.  The society was cosmopolitan, attracting traders and diplomats from various parts of Asia, including Persia and Arabia.

·         Five Dynasties Period (907-960 AD):  A chaotic era of political division in Imperial China that followed the collapse of the Tang Dynasty.  It was characterized by a rapid succession of five regimes in the northern heartland and the coexistence of multiple independent kingdoms, primarily in the south.  Frequent wars in the north triggered a massive southward migration, shifting China's economic and cultural center toward the Yangtze River basin.  The era ended when General Zhao Kuangyin seized power in 960 AD to found the Song Dynasty.

·         Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD):  Noted for its economic prosperity and technological innovations, including the invention of gunpowder, the compass, and movable type printing.  The period is characterized by rapid population growth, advanced agriculture, and the world's first government-issued paper money.   Confucianism was revitalized, while arts, specifically painting and porcelain, flourished.  The dynasty fell in 1279 after being conquered by invading Mongols.

·         Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368 AD): The first foreign-led dynasty in China, established by Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, following the Mongol conquest.  As part of the Mongol Empire, the Yuan Dynasty united China, facilitated trade, and bolstered the Silk Road, welcoming foreign envoys, including Marco Polo (1275-1292).  It also enforced a rigid, ethnically stratified society.  The era saw the exclusive use of paper currency, and the growth of maritime trade, which led to the popularity of blue-and-white porcelain.  The dynasty fell in 1368 due to intense factional infighting, severe corruption, excessive taxation, natural disasters, and the widespread Red Turban Rebellion, a massive peasant uprising that effectively ended the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty and paved the way for the Ming Dynasty. 

Simplified map of the Silk Road, linking China with the West.

  

·         Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD): A period of native Han Chinese rule after overthrowing the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty.  Known for its economic prosperity, cultural refinement, fine porcelain, and massive infrastructure projects.  The dynasty saw the construction of the Forbidden City, the expansion of the Great Wall, and famous voyages by Zheng He, who commanded seven, massive maritime expeditions, showcasing imperial power across the Indian Ocean.  His "Treasure Fleets," sometimes featuring over 300 ships and 27,000 personnel, reached Southeast Asia, India, the Persian Gulf, and East Africa. 

The Forbidden City, a massive imperial palace complex in the heart of Beijing, served as the political and ceremonial center of the Chines empire for over 500 years.

 

·         Qing Dynasty (1644-1912 AD): Founded by Manchu invaders, an ethnic group from Northeast China, it was China’s final imperial dynasty.  It reached the empire's greatest territorial extent but eventually declined due to internal rebellions and conflicts with Western powers (primarily Great Britain and later France).  Two 19^th-century military conflicts (Opium Wars) were triggered by China’s attempts to suppress the illegal opium trade, which was causing widespread addiction and a massive drain of silver from the Chinese economy.  Following defeat in the Opium Wars, the Qing dynasty suffered “a century of humiliation” and increased foreign influence.

The Qing dynasty also faced internal upheavals like the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864), a massive civil war in China that stands as the bloodiest civil war in human history, with an estimated 20 to 30 million deaths.  Another upheaval was the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901), a violent anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian movement in North China.  Efforts at modernization and reform largely failed, which weakened the imperial system, leading to the 1911 Xinhai Revolution and the abdication of the last emperor, Puyi.  This ended over two millennia of imperial rule and led to the founding of the Republic of China.

 

Next blog: History135 - China and its Growth to Problematic Superpower: Part 2

 

 

 

Let her sleep, for when she wakes, she will shake the world." - Napoleon Bonaparte

 

 

Sources

My principal sources include: “China,” and “History of China,” en.wikipdia.org; “History of China,” britannica.com; plus, numerous other online sources, including answers to many queries using Google in AI-Mode.