HISTORY133 - Greenland and the Trump-Caused International Crisis

Greenland has risen to prominence lately because of U.S. President Trump’s aggressively renewed efforts to acquire Greenland, framing it as a vital U.S. national security and economic goal to counter Chinese and Russian influence in the Arctic.  I knew little of the history of Greenland (or the history of U.S. interest in the island), so I thought it would be good, timely subject for a blog.

 

After an (uncharacteristically long for me) introduction, I will discuss the history of Greenland in these historical periods: first inhabitants, the Norse settlements, the association with Denmark and Norway, the association with Denmark, historic U.S. interests, and the “Greenland Crisis,” caused by recent Trump assertions.  I will conclude with a look at future options to resolve the “Greenland Crisis.”

As usual, I will list my principal sources at the end.

 

Introduction

Greenland is an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark.  It is the world's largest (non-continental) island  and lies between the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. 

Greenland, near the top of the world, between the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans.

The total area of Greenland is approximately 836,330 square miles, making it about one-quarter the size of the continental United States and about three times the size of Texas. 

Greenland is about one-quarter of the size of the continental U.S.

The defining feature of Greenland's geography is its massive ice sheet, which covers about 80% of the total land area.  It is the second largest in the world after Antarctica, reaching a maximum thickness of almost two miles.  It holds approximately 7% to 8% of the world's fresh water.

The island is fringed by rugged mountain ranges.  Its highest peak is Gunnbjørn Fjeld, rising to 12,119 feet, making it the highest point in the Arctic.  Greenland’s coast is deeply indented by thousands of fjords. 

Greenland, showing the massive Greenland ice sheet and coastal settlements.

Only a narrow coastal strip, primarily in the south and west, remains ice-free.  This area is roughly the size of Sweden or Norway.  The landscape is mostly treeless tundra. Only a small, protected area in the south contains a natural forest. Indigenous species include polar bears, musk oxen, reindeer, Arctic foxes, and various marine mammals like seals and whales. 

Greenland’s coastal area has been inhabited over at least the last 4,500 years, first by Palaeo-Inuit peoples who migrated there from what is now Canada, then by Norsemen from Iceland in the 10^th century, followed soon after by Thule culture immigrants from present day Alaska.  For over 400 years, beginning in the late 14^th century, Greenland was politically and culturally associated with the combined European kingdom of Norway and Denmark.

From the early 19^th century, following the separation of Denmark from Norway, Greenland gradually became associated solely with Denmark as a colony.  The 1953 Constitution of Denmark ended Greenland's status as a colony, integrating it fully into the Danish state.  In a 1979 referendum, Denmark granted home rule to Greenland.  In a 2008 referendum, Greenlanders voted for the Self-Government Act which transferred more power from the Danish government to the local government.  Under this structure, Greenland gradually assumed responsibility for governmental services and areas of competence.  Today, the Danish government retains control of citizenship, monetary policy, security policies, and foreign affairs.  Economically, Greenland is heavily reliant on aid from Denmark.

Today, Greenland has a population of about 56,600, concentrated mainly on the southwest coast, with Nuuk as its capital.  The rest of the island is sparsely populated.  Around 90% of Greenland's population is of Inuit descent, specifically descending from the Thule culture.

Greenland possesses immense, largely untapped mineral wealth, including significant deposits of rare earth elements, uranium, zinc, copper, and iron ore, drawing intense international interest.   Only a few mines currently operate due to extreme environmental conditions, lack of infrastructure, and strict regulations.

Greenland has extensive, but largely untapped, mineral deposits.

 

With its abundance of mineral wealth, and its strategic position between Eurasia, North America, and the Arctic zone, Greenland holds strategic importance for the Kingdom of Denmark, NATO, the European Union, and lately the United States.  Since 2025, U.S. President Trump has made threats to annex Greenland.

 

First Inhabitants (2500 BC - AD 1700)

The first inhabitants of Greenland were Paleo-Inuit groups who migrated in repeated waves from northern Canada’s Arctic Archipelago islands, starting in about 2500 BC.  (The population of those islands are thought to have descended, in turn, from inhabitants of Siberia who migrated into Alaska across the Bering Land Bridge roughly 15,000 to 20,000 years ago.)  Over the course of centuries, six early cultures succeeded one another as groups died out and were replaced by new immigrants.

Greenland’s first peoples survived by adapting to the harsh Arctic climate through hunting of seals and sea mammals, complemented by hunting muskox and caribou.  They utilized bone, antler, and stone tools to make clothing and skin-covered boats for hunting on sea ice.  They lived in small, nomadic, family-based groups. 

The sixth Paleo-Inuit immigrant group, the Late Dorset Culture, arrived in 700-800, settled in northwestern Greenland, and lasted until about 1300. 

After several hundred years without a new immigrant group, a seventh group, Thule Culture people, arrived around 1200, and soon replaced the Late Dorset Culture.  Thule Culture people migrated eastward from Alaska around 1000, across Canada, reaching Greenland around 1200, and settling initially in the northern and northwestern coastal regions.  They gradually expanded to populate most of Greenland’s coastal regions.

Thule people were highly adapted to the Arctic, using bowhead whale bones, stone, and sod to build winter, semi-subterranean houses.  They mastered the use of harpoons with drag floats for whale hunting.  They hunted almost all animals on land and in the ocean, including whale, walrus, and seal.  They used dog sleds for winter travel over sea ice, and kayaks (1-person) and umiaks (large, open boats for group transport) for open-water travel.

The Thule people are the direct ancestors of Greenland’s current Inuit population.  No genes from the earlier Palaeo-Inuit cultures have been found in the present population of Greenland.

 

Norse Settlements (986 - c. 1450)

In 986, Norse (Scandinavian) settlers from Iceland, led by Erik the Red, established three settlements on Greenland’s southwestern coast, and soon operated over 600 farms, distributed among the settlements. (Iceland had been settled by Norse Vikings around 900.) 

Erik the Red named the icy territory "Greenland" as a marketing tactic to entice potential settlers, believing they would be more likely to join him if the land had an appealing name.

Around 1000, Leif Erikson, son of Erik the Red, sailed west from Greenland and reached Newfoundland, Canada, where he established a Norse settlement.  He was the first European to set foot on continental North America, nearly 500 years before Christopher Columbus. 

The Greenland settlers initially shared the island with Late Dorset Culture inhabitants, who primarily occupied the northwestern coastal region, and later with those of the Thule Culture, who replaced the Dorset Culture.  

For nearly 500 years, Norse settlers maintained a unique European society on the edge of the Arctic, until they vanished in the mid-15^th century.  They maintained a "Pastoral Niche," attempting to transplant a Scandinavian lifestyle into a sub-Arctic environment.  They raised cattle, sheep, goats, and horses. Over time, as the climate cooled, they shifted from cattle to hardier sheep and goats.  Their primary economic driver was the export of walrus ivory and furs to Europe in exchange for essentials like iron and timber.  Initially based heavily on livestock, their diet shifted towards marine resources (up to 80% seal and fish) as farming conditions worsened over time because of the Little Ice Age.

The Little Ice Age was a period of regional cooling that occurred between roughly 1300 and 1850. While it was not a true global ice age, it caused significant temperature drops in parts of the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in the North Atlantic region. 

At its peak, around the 13^th to early 14^th century, the total population of Norse Greenland is estimated to have been roughly 2,000 to 3,000 people. 

In the 14^th century, the Norse settlements began to decline.  The last written records of the Norse Greenlanders are from a 1408 marriage at Hvalsey Church, which is now the best-preserved Norse ruin.  By the mid-15^th century, the Norse settlements ceased to be inhabited.

Ruins of Hvalsey Church, the best-preserved Norse ruin in Greenland.

The colony’s collapse is attributed to a "perfect storm" of challenges: The onset of the Little Ice Age brought colder temperatures, shorter growing seasons, and increased sea ice that hindered shipping.  The value of walrus ivory plummeted as African elephant ivory became more available in Europe.  Overgrazing and deforestation of local willow and birch scrub led to soil erosion.  Heavy reliance on Norwegian trade meant that when the Black Death devastated Norway’s population, Greenland lost its lifeline to Europe.  Finally, the Thule people started migrating south around 1200-1300, competing for resources and occasionally clashing with the Norse. 

Association with Denmark and Norway (1261-1814)

Norse Greenlanders had submitted to Norwegian rule in 1261 under the Kingdom of Norway.  In 1397, the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden united under a single monarch.  In 1523, Sweden left the union, leaving the Denmark-Norway union. 

Despite Greenland’s Norse colony’s disappearance, Denmark-Norway, apparently believing the Norse settlements had still survived, continued to claim sovereignty over Greenland despite the lack of contact with the Norse.

In 1605-1607, Denmark-Norway sent a series of expeditions to Greenland and Arctic waterways to locate the lost Norse settlement and assert Danish-Norwegian sovereignty over Greenland.  The expeditions were mostly unsuccessful, due to leaders who lacked experience with the difficult Arctic ice and weather.

When it finally re-established access to Greenland in the early 17^th century, Denmark-Norway asserted its sovereignty claims over the island.  In 1721, a joint mercantile and clerical expedition led by Dano-Norwegian missionary Hans Egede was sent to Greenland, not knowing whether a Norse civilization remained there.

No Norse were found, but a Denmark-Norway settlement was established at the site of today's capital city Nuuk on the southwest coast.  This marked the beginning of modern Dano-Norwegian colonization in Greenland.  Gradually, Greenland was opened up to Danish-Norway merchants but closed to those from other countries the to protect Danish-Norway economic interests and "protect" the Inuit natives from outside influence. 

Hans Egede, Denmark-Norway Lutheran missionary and explorer, is known as the "Apostle of Greenland" for his role in establishing the first permanent European settlement in Greenland since the Viking Age. 

Throughout the 18^th century, Denmark-Norway founded several trade outposts along Greenland’s west coast.  The colonial economy centered on the production and export of seal blubber, whale oil, and furs.  In southern Greenland, Inuit farming communities began to develop toward the end of the 18^th century.

In 1814, after Denmark-Norway's defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, Norway was ceded to Sweden, while Denmark retained the North Atlantic dependencies including Greenland and Iceland. 

 

Association with Denmark (1814 - present)

The 19^th century in Greenland was a pivotal era of colonial consolidation under Danish rule, shifting from a period of isolation to one of "paternalistic" development and early steps toward modern administration. 

·        Denmark maintained a tight trade monopoly, restricting commerce with other nations to ensure the colony remained profitable and to "protect" the population from outside exploitation.

·         Small-scale mining emerged, including coal mining for local use and the extraction of cryolite starting in 1854.

·         In 1861, Hinrich Rink established Greenland’s first printing press and launched the first Greenlandic language newspaper, helping to formalize the written Greenlandic language. (Greenlandic is an Inuit language, historically influenced by the Danish language, that was made the official language of Greenland in 2009.)

·   In 1862, Greenland was granted limited local self-government through the establishment of governorships intended to foster cooperation between Danes and Greenlanders.

The 20^th century was a transformative period for Greenland, marking its shift from a closed, isolated Danish colony to an autonomous constituent country with a modern welfare state.  This evolution was driven by geopolitical shifts during World War II, post-war modernization, and a growing movement for self-determination. 

·         At the start of the century, Greenland was a strictly controlled colony under a Danish trade monopoly.  In 1908, the first laws for local governance were introduced, establishing provincial and municipal councils.

·         When Nazi Germany occupied Denmark in 1940, Greenland became a de facto U.S. protectorate.  This period fostered a sense of self-reliance as Greenlanders managed their own affairs and traded directly with North America.

·     In 1953, a constitutional amendment in Denmark changed Greenland’s status from a colony to an integral administrative region of the Danish Realm, granting Greenlanders Danish citizenship and representation in the Danish Parliament.

·     Following a 1979 referendum, where over 70% of voters supported greater autonomy, Greenland established its own parliament and gained control over domestic areas like education, health, and fisheries. 

·         In the 1950s-1960s, post-World War II Denmark launched massive investment programs to modernize Greenland’s infrastructure, education, and healthcare to match Danish standards.

·      The population shifted from small hunting settlements to larger towns like the capital Nuuk, which boomed during the 1950s.

·         The economy transitioned from subsistence hunting and gathering to a post-industrial society centered on commercial fishing (shrimp and halibut) and emerging mining.

In the 21^st century, Greenland is transitioning from a remote, ice-covered territory to a critical geopolitical and economic hub.  This development is driven by the dual forces of increasing political autonomy and the accelerating effects of climate change. 

·         Following a 2008 referendum, Greenland transitioned from "Home Rule" to Self-Rule. This granted the Government of Greenland control over its mineral resources, justice system, and most domestic affairs.

·         Independence remains a central goal for many Greenland politicians, though it is currently constrained by a heavy reliance on an annual block grant from Denmark (approx. $500M+).

·        To balance external pressures, Greenland has strengthened ties with Western institutions like NATO and established the Arctic North American Forum with indigenous assemblies in Canada and Alaska. 

·     While the economy remains 90%+ dependent on fishing, new sectors are being developed: critical minerals, tourism and infrastructure, and renewable energy.

·         Despite its size, Greenland has developed a sophisticated digital telecommunications network. 

·        Greenland’s current population is about 89% Inuit/mixed heritage, 11% European (mostly Danish), with growing populations from the Philippines, Thailand, and Iceland.

Greenland’s capital city Nuuk today.  It has a population of just over 20,000 - more than a third of the territory’s population.

Currently, Greenland is experiencing intense global competition, with the U.S., China, and Russia who are actively vying for influence.

·      U.S.: Renewed military focus on the Pituffik Space Base (formerly Thule) to counter Russia, and interest in critical minerals to counter China.

·         China: Attempts to integrate Greenland into its "Polar Silk Road" through infrastructure and mining investments.

·         Russia: Increasing Arctic military presence, which has pushed Greenland to align more closely with NATO. 

 

Historic U.S. Interests (19^th and 20^th Centuries)

United States interest in Greenland began shortly after the American Civil War as part of a broader expansionist vision. 

·         1867-1868: Following the purchase of Alaska, Secretary of State William H. Seward commissioned a report on Greenland’s resources, viewing it as a way to "command the commerce of the world," and potentially encourage Canada to join the U.S.  The idea was rejected by Congress at the time.

·       1910: U.S. Ambassador to Denmark Maurice Francis Egan proposed an "audacious" three-way land swap: the U.S. would trade Mindanao in the Philippines to Denmark for Greenland and the Danish West Indies, allowing Denmark to then trade Mindanao to Germany for lost territory in Europe. The proposal was not acted upon, but it highlights long-standing U.S. interest in acquiring Greenland.

After Nazi Germany invaded Denmark in 1940, the U.S. moved to prevent Greenland from becoming a German base of operations. 

·         1941 Agreement: Danish Ambassador Henrik Kauffmann, acting independently of the Nazi-occupied government, signed the "Agreement Relating to the Defense of Greenland," giving the U.S. exclusive jurisdiction over the island's defense.

·         Strategic Role: The U.S. built over 30 weather stations, ports, and airfields in Greenland. These were vital for ferrying aircraft to Britain, protecting a cryolite mine (essential for aluminum production), and planning D-Day landings. 

During the Cold War (1946-1990). Greenland became the geographic midpoint between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, leading to massive military infrastructure projects. 

·         1946 Purchase Offer: President Harry Truman secretly offered Denmark $100 million in gold to buy the island.  Denmark rejected the offer as "shocking".

·      1951 Defense Agreement: A new treaty within the NATO framework granted the U.S. extensive military rights, leading to the construction of massive Thule Air Base (now Pituffik Space Base) as a linchpin for early-warning systems.

After a period of relative disinterest following the Cold War, U.S. focus has returned due to Arctic melting and the presence of Russia and China in the region. 

·         Acquisition Efforts: President Donald Trump publicly expressed interest in purchasing Greenland in 2019 and renewed these efforts in 2024 and 2025, describing it as a "national security priority.”  See below.

·         U.S. Base: Pituffik Space Base remains the only active U.S. base in Greenland, providing critical early-warning missile detection.

Since 1979 (Home Rule) and 2009 (Self-Government), Greenland has gained significant autonomy.  Any modern transfer of sovereignty would require the consent of both Denmark and the Greenland government. 

Trump’s Greenland Crisis

During the second presidency of Donald Trump, the United States has pursued a campaign to annex Greenland by various means.  This followed a failed attempt by Trump to purchase Greenland during his first presidency, that was firmly turned down by Danish Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen.  The Danish Defence Intelligence Service included the United States as a potential threat to national security, alongside Russia and China, in its threat assessment that year.  On the international stage, Trump's threats against Greenland have been described as a new, potentially unprecedented challenge to NATO.

In early 2025, President Donald Trump, newly inaugurated in his second term, reaffirmed his desire to acquire Greenland, citing its "vital" importance to U.S. national security, specifically to counter Russian and Chinese influence in the Arctic.  He stated, "One way or the other, we're going to get it.”  He pressured Denmark to sell Greenland to the United States and threatened military action, but Denmark rejected his demand.  Trump claimed that the USA needs Greenland for military reasons and claims that if America doesn't claim it, then China or Russia will claim it instead.  In an effort to take control of Greenland, he has offered between $10,000-$100,000 to every Greenland civilian, which critics viewed as a bribe.

President Trump regards Greenland as being of "vital" importance to U.S. national security and for securing rare earth minerals.

On March 28, 2025, Vice President JD Vance visited the U.S. military's Pituffik Space Base in Greenland, raising diplomatic tensions.  He met with approximately 150 U.S. troops and emphasized Arctic security and the strategic importance of the region.  The visit was part of a broader U.S. push to secure mining and strategic interests in the Arctic.

In early 2026, President Trump triggered an international crisis by again threatening to annex Greenland, citing security needs and resource access.  Trump aimed for "total control" of the island to secure rare earth minerals and enhance U.S. Arctic strategic positioning against Russia and China.  He refused to rule out using military force to annex the island and proposed a 25% tariff on European Union goods to pressure Denmark into a deal.  Denmark rejected the premise, stating that Greenland is "not for sale". The actions severely damaged NATO unity, as an American takeover was viewed as an attack on a NATO ally.

Tensions are rising between the U.S. and NATO regarding how to manage strategic positioning against Russia.

Following intense backlash, Trump backpedaled at the World Economic Forum, held in Davos-Klosters, Switzerland in January 2026, dropping the military option and tariffs, but claimed a victory, achieving "total security, total access" in a new, albeit vague, framework agreement with Denmark. 

Despite the de-escalation, the incident highlighted a deep rift in U.S.-Europe relations, prompted European calls for greater "strategic autonomy," and left lingering concerns about American expansionism under the second Trump administration. 

 

Resolving the Greenland Crisis

Future options to resolve the "Greenland crisis" - primarily defined by U.S. efforts to gain greater control over the resource-rich, strategic territory in the Arctic - include a U.S.-Greenland compact of free association, a renegotiated defense agreement, or increased European, Canadian, and NATO economic and security partnerships with Greenland to counter U.S. influence. 

Key Options and Strategies (as of early 2026):

·         Compact of Free Association: The U.S. may seek an agreement similar to those with Pacific nations, where Greenland remains self-governing but cedes security/foreign affairs to the U.S. in exchange for economic aid.

·         Renegotiation of Defense Agreements: Instead of a full takeover, options include amending the 1951 U.S.-Denmark Defense of Greenland Agreement to increase U.S. access to, and control over, ports and infrastructure.

·         Economic and Infrastructure Investment: To mitigate U.S. pressure, European countries or Canada could increase financial support for Greenland's infrastructure projects and, significantly, its pathway to independence, reducing reliance on Denmark.

·      NATO Integration for an Independent Greenland: If Greenland moves towards independence, it could enter a NATO-backed security agreement, similar to Iceland's model, providing security without direct U.S. annexation.

·         EU Anti-Coercion Measures: The EU could apply its Anti-Coercion Instrument (ACI) to respond to aggressive U.S. attempts to force a change in sovereignty.  (The ACI, in force since December 27, 2023, is a trade defense tool designed to deter or counter economic blackmail by non-EU countries. It allows for countermeasures, such as tariffs, import/export restrictions, or services limitations, when third countries pressure EU members to change policies.)

 

Sources

My principal sources include: “Greenland” and “History of Greenland,” en.wikipedia.org; “History of Greenland,” britannica.com; “Greenland: The world’s largest island,” denmark.dk; “Maps show why Greenland is so important as the Arctic warms,” cbsnews.com; “Trump’s Greenland gambit,” usatoday.com; plus, numerous other online sources, including answers to many queries using Google in AI-Mode.