HISTORY127 - Personal Names

This blog topic came from Pat and I talking about my last blog article on the history of personal identification - a natural fallout, I guess.  I quickly determined that there was a lot to learn here too.

 

After a short introduction, I will discuss the history of personal names in the following sections:  ancient times (before writing), early civilizations (after writing), Europe in the Middle Ages, and America (from the 16^th century to the present).  I will finish with some suggestions for tracing the origin of your name.

To make this all manageable, from the Middle Ages on, I will focus on Europe and America.  (There is a wealth of material available on personal naming in other cultures.)  And I will focus on family names versus first names.

As usual, I will list my principal sources at the end.

 

Introduction

A personal name is the set of names by which a person is known.   In many cultures, the term is synonymous with the birth name or legal name of the individual.

Today, in Western culture, nearly all individuals possess at least one given name (also known as a first name, forename, or Christian name), together with a surname (also known as a last name or family name).  In the name James Smith, for example, James is the given name and Smith is the surname. Surnames in the West generally indicate that the individual belongs to a family; they may be given at birth, taken upon adoption, changed upon marriage, and so on. 

In many families, single or multiple middle names are simply alternative names, honoring an ancestor or relative, or, for married women, sometimes their maiden names.

Many Catholic families choose a saint's name as their child's middle name, or this can be left until the child's confirmation when they can choose a saint's name for themselves.

First/given, middle, and last/family/surname with John Fitzgerald Kennedy as example. This shows a structure typical for the Anglo-American world.

 

Some people choose to be anonymous, that is, to hide their true names, for fear of governmental prosecution or social ridicule of their works or actions.  Another method to disguise one's identity is to employ a pseudonym.

Some people adopt nicknames and don’t use their given names at all.

For some people, their name is a single word.  This can be true from birth, or occur later in life.  For example, Teller, of the magician duo Penn and Teller, was named Raymond Joseph Teller at birth, but changed his name both legally and socially to be simply Teller.  In some official government documents, such as his driver's license, his given name is listed as NFN, an initialism for "no first name.”

When names are repeated across generations, the senior or junior generation (or both) may be designed with the name suffix "Sr." or "Jr.," respectively; or, more formally, by an ordinal Roman number such as "I", "II" or "III."  In the Catholic tradition, papal names are distinguished in sequence, and may be reused many times, such as Leo XIV (the 14^th pope assuming the papal name Leo).

Over thousands of years, personal names have evolved from simple identifiers to the modern three-part names discussed above.  Let’s get into that history.

 

Ancient Times (Before Writing)

There's no evidence of personal names for the earliest humans, before writing emerged, so discussion of names in ancient times is speculative.

But humans are social, and form complex societies.  Even prehistoric groups, with trade and ritual, would have needed ways to identify individuals, making names highly probable. 

Early humans could communicate with each other in a variety of ways: spoken sounds, hand gestures, and maybe even singing to attract mates.  Perhaps they had their own version of primitive labels; a human’s hand stamped near a cave painting could be the original progenitor of a name.

Early humans could have used sounds to identify each other.  Prehistoric humans almost certainly had names for social identification, though we don't know specific sounds; these names might have started as descriptive "titles" like "strong one," "good hunter," or “elder,” rather than personal names as we know them today. 

 

Early Civilizations (After Writing)

Writing developed independently in several places, with the earliest systems emerging in Mesopotamia (Sumerian cuneiform) around 3400-3300 BC and Egypt (hieroglyphs) shortly after that.  Personal names in early civilizations served crucial roles in identity, social order, and religion, evolving from simple identifiers to complex systems.

Sumeria (5500 BC to 1800 BC). Kushim is believed to be the earliest recorded (c. 3200 BC) personal name, appearing on a Sumerian clay tablet, likely an accountant or administrator, responsible for keeping track of barley production.  Attaching names to documents became a crucial part of accounting and record keeping to track work or agricultural production. 

This ancient artefact offers a candid glimpse into the day-to-day transactions of the Sumerians.  Its inscription, translates roughly to “29,086 measures of barley over 37 months, signed Kushim,” symbolizing our ancestors’ pragmatic needs.

Later Ancient Sumerian (single) names often described a person's divine connection, profession, or qualities, using elements like Nin (Lady/Queen), Lugal (King), deity names (Inanna, Nanna), or concepts like Amar (calf/young animal) and Ezen (festival), resulting in meaningful but sometimes long names like Amarezen (calf of the festival) or Baranamtarra (fate decreed for the king).  Common examples include legendary figures like Gilgamesh, deities like Enlil (air god), or Ninhursag (mountain lady), and everyday terms like Aga (crown) or Ninna (owl). 

Ancient Egypt (3150 BC to 30 BC).  Ancient Egyptian (single to multiple) names often reflected religious devotion, divine connections, or personal qualities, featuring prominent gods like Amun, Ra, Osiris, Isis, Horus, and Thoth, with examples including Ramesses (begotten by Ra), Amenhotep (Amun is satisfied), Hatshepsut (foremost of noble ladies), Imhotep (he who comes in peace), and Nefertiti (beauty has come).  Names could be simple, like Neferet, (beautiful), compound Meritamun (beloved of Amun), or full sentences, linking individuals to eternity and their society, with names like Tutankhamun (living Image of Amun) and Cleopatra Thea Philopatora (Goddess who loves her father) being famous examples. 

Ancient Greece (800 BC to 146 BC). Ancient Greek (single) names often came from mythology, historical figures, or virtues, including male names Achilles (warrior), Alexander (defender of men), Apollo (god of music, light, and prophecy), Socrates (whole power), and Zeus (god of thunder and lightning.  Female names included Aphrodite (goddess of love and beauty), Athena (goddess of wisdom and strategic warfare), Helen (shining light), and Sophia (wisdom).  Ancient Greek surnames often derived from a person's father's name, their occupation, or their place of origin. 

Early Roman Empire (27 BC to AD 180). In the early Roman Empire, the naming system for male citizens was typically a three-part structure:

First Name (praenomen): The personal, given name, used primarily by family and close friends (e.g., Publius, Gaius, Marcus).  There was a very limited number of these in common use.

Second Name (nomen): The clan or family name, which was the most important part of the name and indicated the person's extended family (e.g., Cornelius, Julius, Fabius).  These names typically ended in "-ius.”

Third Name (cognomen): An additional family name that distinguished a specific branch within a large clan.  It often originated as a nickname based on a personal characteristic or occupation but became hereditary (e.g., Scipio, Caesar, Cicero).  Julius Caesar was known by his third name, not his clan or family name.

Typical three-part structure of male Roman names.

A fourth, supplementary name (agnomen) was sometimes added to the basic three names to further distinguish an individual, often to honor a significant achievement. 

Roman women typically did not use the three-name structure.  Instead, they were generally known by the feminine form of their father's clan name.  For example, a daughter of a man with the clan or family name of Julius would be named Julia.  If there were multiple daughters, they might be distinguished by number, such as Prima, Secunda, Tertia, or Major and Minor. 

 

Europe (Middle Ages: 5^th to late 15^th Century)

As the Roman Empire crumbled, Europe once again reverted to mostly single names. 

Bynames. But by the early Middle Ages (late 5^th to 10^th century), with growing populations, single given (first) names (e.g. John or Alice) weren't enough, leading to the rise of a second name that followed the given name, a non-hereditary byname or identifier, used for clarity.  Hereditary (family) surnames for the general population did not become common until the late 14^th century.  Bynames were often derived from:

Occupation: Occupational surnames were originally assigned based on one’s job in Medieval society.  Many English-based examples are rather self-explanatory (Smith, Weaver, Potter, Baker, Miller, Carpenter, etc.).   Gender also played a role in English occupational names.  The byname Baker designated a man who bakes, while Baxter designated a woman who bakes.

Location: Locational bynames were derived from general areas - Hill, Lake, Bridges, Rivers - or more specific towns/cities/regions like London, Bristol, Cambridge, Kent, Hudson, or Everest, reflecting historical settlements, natural landmarks, or even family estates, with many common bynames like Birmingham or Wolverhampton also stemming from place names, showing a deep connection between landscape and personal identity. 

Description: Descriptive bynames usually originated from physical traits like Armstrong, Little, Strong, Wise, Goodchild, Black, White, Long, or names meaning "red-haired" (like Russo or Rossi). The frequent byname Brown might have been used to describe someone with darker-colored hair, clothing, or complexion.  Descriptive surnames could also be symbolic in nature, referring to one’s personality or other abstract traits.

Surnames.  Hereditary surnames (family names) emerged, many from bynames, in England after the Norman Conquest in 1066, first adopted by the aristocracy, and became widespread among the general population by the 14^th century, solidifying by the mid-1500s with parish record requirements.  The custom of passing surnames down from father to child became fixed as populations grew and records became important, especially after mandatory church registers. 

A major study by the University of the West of England identified 45,600 family names in Britain and Ireland with roots dating back to the Middle Ages. 

Popular surnames in Medieval England.

Given Names. In the mid-to-late Middle Ages, English given (or first) names were dominated by classic Germanic, Biblical, and saint names, with commonality leading to nicknames. 

Germanic Roots: Names with Germanic roots include William, Richard, Henry, Charles, Edward, Emma, Alice, and Frederick.

Biblical & Saintly Influence: Names from the Bible (like Adam, Elias, Sarah) and saints (like Margaret, John) became extremely popular, especially after the Reformation.

Nicknames: Some nicknames were based on a physical attribute or personal characteristic, like Krause (curly) and Schwarzkopf (black head).  Other nicknames were derivatives like Hal (for Henry) or Jenkins (from John).

Powerful Meanings: Many names had strong meanings, such as Conrad, Dagmar, Arnger, Brenna, Arthur, Beatrice, Gunnora, Ademar, and Gunther.

Nobility often reused names like Richard or William to signify family status.  Patronymic names were derived from a person's father's name (e.g., Johnson for John's son, or Hughes for Hugh's son).

Middle names in England began with European nobility in the late Medieval period, spread to the aristocracy by the 17^th century (following French fashion), and became common for the general population by the 19^th century, initially to honor saints or family, but later for identification in growing societies.

 

America (16^th Century to Present)

Surnames. The history of American surnames is a tapestry woven from indigenous tradition, influences from Great Britain and Europe during colonization, immigrant Anglicization for assimilation, and unique cultural creativity, especially in African American naming, evolving from traditional patterns (naming kids after grandparents) to reflecting diverse origins and personal expression, with names constantly shifting in popularity. 

Native American Traditions. Indigenous names were traditionally derived from nature, animals, or significant personal traits.  Many tribes used single names that could change throughout a person's life to reflect achievements or new life stages.  Following European contact, many Native Americans adopted European-style names or used English translations of their traditional names as surnames (e.g., Sleeping Owl becoming a family name). 

British and European Influences (Colonial Era).  Early American surnames were heavily influenced by British names.  Many early colonists from Great Britain used names with biblical roots, such as Michael, Sarah, Daniel, Matthew, Isaac, Nathaniel, and Zachariah) and "virtue names" (e.g., Grace, Mercy, Faith) that persist as classic American choices.  Popular American names were derived from British professions (e.g., Smith, Taylor, Baker, Miller, Clark, Archer) or geographic features (e.g., Green, Hill, Lake, Fields, Brooks, London).  Additional names were based on personal characteristics, like Brown, Short, and Little.   Names of British monarchs and nobility, such as William, George, Henry, and Elizabeth, have remained top choices in America for centuries. 

The British tradition of adding "-son" or "-s" to a father's name (e.g., Jackson, Johnson. Williams) remains a standard format for American surnames.  American names often followed British patterns like naming first sons after the paternal grandfather and the second after the maternal grandfather. 

Other roots for American Colonial names included Germanic (William, Miller, Schmidt), Irish (Murphy, Kelly), Greek (Steven), and Latin (Julia). 

In the 1600s, middle names were virtually nonexistent in the American colonies.  By the Revolutionary War era, only about 5% of Americans had middle names, often used to preserve a mother’s maiden name or honor a relative. 

Immigration and Anglicization (19^th to mid 20^th Century). Large waves of immigrants (Irish, German, Italian) often changed their surnames to fit English sounds or spellings (e.g., phonetic changes, translations, or using similar-sounding English names) to avoid discrimination or simplify complex spellings.  Examples include: Ludwig to Lewis, and Dolebowski to Dole.

Enslaved Africans were forced to take names given by their masters, often European names, or even names of literary characters.  After emancipation, many took the surnames of former masters or chosen heroes like Washington. 

Later Drivers of immigrant surname changes included:

·         Economic Advantage: Having an "American-sounding" name provided a measurable economic boost, often equivalent to 2-5% of annual earnings during the early 20^th century.

·         Avoiding Discrimination: Many groups, particularly Jewish and Asian immigrants, changed names to bypass quotas or hostile hiring practices.

·         Social Conformity: In the 1910s and 1920s, the pressure to conform was intense; Northern Europeans (Norwegians, Swedes, Danes) were typically the fastest to adopt American names. 

·     Surname-as-First-Name: A distinctly American trend involved using British/Irish surnames as given names (e.g., Parker, Madison, Harper).  This practice often originated as a way to preserve a mother’s maiden name or single status. 

Regional and cultural variations included:

·         Southern Traditions: In the American South, it has historically been common to use maternal family surnames as first or middle names to honor lineage.

·      Honorific Practices: In the 19^th century, Americans began using surnames of famous British and American historical figures as first names (e.g., Jackson, Jefferson, Washington).

·      Quaker Patterns: In colonial Pennsylvania and Delaware, specific British patterns were followed where the eldest son was often named after his mother’s father and the eldest daughter after her father’s mother. 

Immigration to the United States over time illustrating our melting pot culture.

Cultural & Creative Evolution (Mid-to-Late 20^th Century).  A distinctive trend in African American naming emerged creating new names from existing sounds and structures, using prefixes like "La/Le," "Da/De," and suffixes like "-isha," resulting in names like LaTanisha, DeAndre, and Shaniqua, often blending African, French, and English elements.  Hispanic surnames (Garcia, Martinez, Lopez) rose in rank in recent decades, reflecting more recent immigration from Latin America.  Names like Nguyen, Kim, and Patel represent significant, growing Asian-American communities.  This era saw a rise in inventing names, sometimes combining elements from existing ones, or creating unique spellings. 

Modern Trends.  Today, American surnames (last names) reflect global origins, from indigenous names to names from various world languages.  Immigrants and their descendants are now more likely to retain or reclaim original ethnic names as a symbol of identity.  Name changes and choices are now often based on individual preference, family connection, cultural meaning, or current trends, rather than forced assimilation.   American names are more often influenced by pop culture or perceived sophistication.  By 2025, there was a strong cultural shift toward unique names, reflecting a value for individuality. 

There were 162,253 unique last names reported 100 or more times in the 2010 United States Census.  That same Census reported a total of 6.3 million unique last names, with many (62%) appearing only once.  America's melting pot culture brings a vast array of names from around the world.

 

Most popular last names in the United States today.

Given Names. The history of given (first) names in the U.S. shows a shift from religiously-rooted, traditional names in early centuries, influenced by English and Biblical traditions, to more diverse names reflecting cultural trends, pop culture, and unique choices.

Early Colonial & 19^th Century: Biblical and Puritan influence produced common first names like Elizabeth, Esther, Comfort, and John, reflecting strong religious beliefs. Names indicating traits (Sophia/wisdom) or Rose /nature) were used, alongside traditional European names. 

Early 20^th Century: Classical favorite first names like Mary, Helen, Dorothy, John, and William dominated for decades, with Mary holding the top female spot for years.  By the 1920s-40s, names like Arthur, Donald, Gail, Earl, Laura, and Irene rose in popularity. 

Mid-to-Late 20^th Century: The "Mary" era ends: Linda (1947-1959) and Lisa (1962-1969) took over, followed by the long reign of Jennifer (1970-1984) and then Jessica (1985-1995).  Michael became the most frequent #1 male name over the last century, alongside consistent popularity for James, Robert, and David. 

Late 20^th Century to Present: Popular names like Emily (late 90s-early 2000s) gave way to Emma, Olivia, and Ava, while Isabella, Sophia, and Mia also soared.  Biblical resurgence names like Jacob, Noah, and Elijah saw huge booms.  Parents embraced unique and modern names like Nevaeh (Heaven backward) and gender-neutral options like Charlie, plus presidential names (Theodore, Franklin) and vintage revivals (Ada, Pearl). 

Most popular first names in the United States today.

Tracing the Origin of Your Name

Except for the figure, the following was obtained from Google in AI-Mode:

Tracing the origin of American personal names involves using a combination of linguistic, historical, and genealogical research methods and resources. The process typically involves consulting authoritative sources on names and delving into family history records to track how names have evolved over time. 

Consult Name Dictionaries: Utilize reputable name dictionaries to find the etymology, original meaning, and geographical roots of a name.  A key resource is the Dictionary of American Family Names by Patrick Hanks, which covers most common U.S. surnames. The website Behind the Name is a reliable online resource for the etymology of given names.

Research Family History: The best way to understand a specific name's journey is to trace your own family lineage.

·         Start with Family Members: Talk to older relatives and gather information, including names, dates, locations, family stories, and any old documents like birth certificates or a family Bible.

·         Use Historical Records: Search official documents, such as U.S. Federal Census records (available from 1790 to 1950, excluding 1890) and vital records (birth, marriage, death certificates).  These can help track where and when a name was used and note variations in spelling over generations.

·         Check Immigration and Naturalization Papers: For immigrant ancestors, these records often list their original name and the port of departure, which can bridge research across the Atlantic.  Name changes were common during or after immigration to sound more "American," but [and] were legally documented after 1906.

Family history can provide insight into the origin of family names.

Utilize Genealogical Websites: Websites like FamilySearch (free) and Ancestry.com (subscription, but often available for free at public libraries) provide vast databases of historical records, surname origins, and the ability to build a family tree.

Be Aware of Name Variations: Names can have many spelling variations due to regional accents, literacy differences, translation into other languages, or simple clerical errors.  Be flexible in your searches and look for alternate spellings or sound-alikes (e.g., the German "Klein" might become "Cline," "Short," "Small," or "Little" in English).

Explore Linguistic and Cultural Contexts [as discussed earlier]: Understand that surnames generally fall into four main categories, which can provide clues: Occupational, Location-based, Patronymic: Based on a father's name, Descriptive/Nickname-based.

Use DNA Testing: While not a replacement for traditional research, DNA testing can provide a starting point by connecting you with distant relatives who might be further along in their genealogical research, offering new leads.

Consult Special Collections: Major libraries and archives, such as the Library of Congress and the National Archives, have extensive collections of local histories, manuscripts, and research guides for onomastics (the study of names) and genealogy. 

 

Note: My son Steven traced our family name back to the early 1700s.  A passenger list from the port of Philadelphia shows that a “Christ Rink” arrived from the Palatine region of Germany on August 17, 1731.  We believe that he is our ancestor.  In 1735, he arrived in Rhinebeck, New York, about 100 miles north of New York City, along the Hudson River, with his name Americanized as Christopher Ring, to join a group of other recent immigrants from Palatine Germany.  Steven traced Christopher Ring and his descendants from 1735, down through many generations to today.

 

Sometimes I lie awake at night and ask why me?  Then a voice answers nothing personal, your name just happened to come up.

Charles M. Schulz

 

Sources

My principal sources include: “Personal name,” Wikipedia.com; “Where Did Our Names Come From?  The Origins May Surprise You,” discovermagazine.com; plus, numerous other online sources, including answers to many queries using Google in AI-Mode.