HISTORY129 - Personal Mobility Aids

About a year ago, Pat and I moved to a retirement community, where many of our new friends and neighbors use personal mobility aids like the one shown below.   It’s impressive how they “get around” and can maintain a full lifestyle.  I thought it would be interesting to research and write about the history of the various mobility aid devices that they are using so successfully.

 

After a short introduction, I will discuss the history of personal mobility aids in four time periods: Pre-17^th Century: Ancient & Early Personal Mobility Aids, 17^th - 19^th Centuries: Self-Propulsion & Comfort, 20^th Century: Variety, Practicality & Power, and 21^st Century: Smart Technology & Advanced Mobility.  I will close with a look at the future of personal mobility aids.

As usual, I will list my principal sources at the end.

 

Introduction

A personal mobility aid helps people get around safely, assisting people with impaired movement.  Older adults and people with disabilities use them most frequently, but anyone can use them. 

Personal mobility aids include walking supports like canes, crutches, and walkers for those with limited walking ability, as well as wheelchairs and scooters for individuals who cannot walk or need assistance over longer distances

For people who are blind or visually impaired, tools such as white canes and guide dogs offer essential support. There are also aids designed for use within buildings, such as stair lifts and transfer devices that help users move between floors or from one position to another.

The 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act, a federal civil rights law, prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in public life.  This includes areas like jobs, schools, transportation, and public and private spaces open to the general public. 

There are currently estimated to be 2.5 billion people globally who need at least one assistive device, whether that be for use at home, in the workplace, or in everyday life.  This number is expected to reach 3.5 billion by 2050 as populations age.

 

Pre-17^th Century: Ancient & Early Personal Mobility Aids

Ancient and early personal mobility aids demonstrate that while technology was primitive, the fundamental need for support, and the ingenuity to create solutions for disability, existed across prehistoric and ancient civilizations, even if luxury versions were limited to the wealthy.

Walking Sticks, Staffs & Canes. Prehistoric/early humans used simple sticks for walking, hunting, and defense, evolving from basic tools.  In Ancient Egypt, walking sticks (then called staffs) became symbols of power, elaborately decorated with precious materials for pharaohs and officials.  Staffs remained common in Medieval times (then called canes), depicted in manuscripts, often with customized grips, serving as aids for travelers.  Canes were also used as symbols of authority by nobility and religious leaders, while also serving as practical aids for disabled pilgrims and the elderly. 

Wheeled Devices.  People in Ancient Greece used wheeled beds to move sick individuals.  Inscriptions suggest that wheeled chairs existed in China by AD 525, used by figures like Confucius and others with reduced mobility. Wheelbarrows, common in Medieval Europe for goods, were adapted to carry people with reduced mobility for community life or pilgrimages.  In 16^th century Spain, a sophisticated, upholstered, four-wheeled chair with rests was built for gout-suffering King Philip II.

Drawing of Confucius having a dialogue with a child while seated in a wheelchair.

 

Sketch of the wheelchair built for Spanish King Philip II.

Other Aids & Accessibility. Basic forms of crutches (like Y-shaped branches) and splints were used, with more advanced designs appearing later.  Ancient Greeks designed some spaces, like the Acropolis, with ramps, to be accessible. 

During the Middle Ages, society did not feel any responsibility for people with reduced mobility or disabilities.  So, there was little progress at that time.  In addition, many of these people lived as outcasts in a society full of superstitions.

 

17^th - 19^th Centuries: Self-Propulsion & Comfort

During this period, there was a change in attitudes towards disabled people, accepting that those with reduced mobility were a part of public responsibility.

The first self-propelled wheelchair was invented in 1655 by paraplegic clock-maker Stephan Farffler of Nuremberg, Germany, who built his own mobility aid when he was only 22 years old, after having broken his back as a child.  Using his mechanical expertise as a clock-maker, Faffler’s wheelchair frame was based on a three-wheel chassis and worked by turning handles attached to a geared front wheel using a system of cranks and cogwheels.

German Stephan Farffler built the first self-propelled wheelchair in 1655.

 

Around 1750, James Heath from Bath, England, invented a popular, plush, pushed wheelchair and named it after his town.  It featured two large wheels in the back and one small one in the front and could be steered by the user by using a stiff handle.  The chair only required one person to push it, and if needed, it could also be mounted on four wheels and drawn by a horse, pony, or donkey. 

Englishman James Heath invented this comfortable push wheelchair in 1750.

 

In the United States, in the 19^th century, wheelchairs became popular, especially among disabled veterans of the Civil War.  They were built primarily with wood and wicker (woven flexible plant materials like willow, rattan, reed, and bamboo), and started to appear more like the wheelchairs we know today.  In the late 1800s, push rims (for self-propulsion) became standard.  Rubber tires were also introduced in the late 1800s as part of improvements driven by advances in the bicycle and carriage industries.   Wire-spoked wheels were introduced to wheelchairs around 1900, replacing heavier wooden wheels and marking a significant step towards lighter, more efficient mobility.

By 1900, wheelchairs started to appear more like the ones we know today.

 

20^th Century: Variety, Practicality & Power

Canes, Crutches & Supporting Devices. Canes evolved as medical mobility aids for daily stability support in walking, designed to bear weight and relieve pressure, built for long-term, regular use.  The first height-adjustable cane was patented in the late 19^th century by George Ingraham.   Charles Goodyear's 1844 vulcanization process later led to rubber tips for canes, though they became common only as smooth surfaces emerged.  Modern cane variations include quad canes for enhanced stability, folding canes for portability, and forearm canes for weight distribution.

A modern quad walking cane.

Canes also evolved as mobility aids for the blind.  In 1921, James Biggs, an English photographer blinded in an accident, painted his walking stick white to be more visible to motorists.  In the 1930s, Frenchwoman Guilly d'Herbemont launched a national “white stick” movement in France, donating 5,000 canes.  Simultaneously, the Lions Club International promoted the white cane in the U.S. after seeing a blind man struggle to cross a busy street with a black cane.  In 1944, Dr. Richard Hoover developed the modern "long cane" technique for blinded WWII veterans at Valley Forge Army Hospital, which involves swinging a lightweight cane in an arc to detect obstacles. 

Crutches also evolved during this period.  In 1917, Frenchman Émile Schlick patented the first commercially produced crutch with an upper arm support.  In the early 1950s, American A.R. Lofstrand Jr. developed height-adjustable underarm crutches, a design widely used today.  The need for greater support during polio epidemics led to designs featuring cuffs for forearm support.  Companies gradually introduced more comfortable crutch options with improved handles and elbow support.  Innovations like the iWALK system now offer medical mobility for lower leg injuries that straps to the user's thigh, with the user's foot/knee supported, allowing them to walk hands-free by resting their injured leg at a 90-degree angle, with a crutch reaching to the ground, freeing their hands for daily tasks like carrying coffee or groceries, and enabling stair climbing with practice.

The iWALK system supports the leg at the knee.

Modern mobility supporting devices (in lieu of canes or crutches), for temporary use, include walking boots and knee scooters.

 

Walkers. Walkers, for support and stability while walking started appearing in the early 1950s. The first U.S. patent was awarded in 1953 to William Cribbes Robb, of Stretford, UK, for a device called "walking aid,” which had been filed with the British patent office in August 1949.  Two variants with wheels were both awarded U.S. patents in 1957, and the first non-wheeled design that was called a "walker" was patented in 1965 by Elmer F. Ries of Cincinnati, Ohio.  The first walker to resemble modern walkers was patented in 1970 by Alfred A. Smith of Van Nuys, California.

A height-adjustable modern walker.

 

In 1978, Swede Aina Wifalk designed the first rollator, a type of wheeled walker, that offers support while walking, and typically features a built-in seat for resting and a storage compartment for personal items.  Unlike a standard walker, rollators do not need to be lifted with each step, providing a smoother gait and enhanced maneuverability.  Wifalk’s design, supported by government funds, became a global standard, offering greater independence with its wheels and seat.

The rollator consists of a frame with three or four large wheels, handlebars, and a built-in seat, which allows the user to stop and rest when needed.  Rollators are also often equipped with a shopping basket.  Rollators are typically more sophisticated than conventional walkers with wheels.  They are adjustable in height and are light-weight, yet sturdier than conventional walkers.  The handlebars are equipped with hand brakes that can be lifted or pushed downward to instantly stop the rollator.  The brakes can also be used in maneuvering the rollator; by braking one side while turning the rollator towards that side a much tighter turning radius can be achieved.

A modern rollator.

 

Wheelchairs. The 20^th century saw a revolution in wheelchairs, shifting from basic designs to sophisticated devices, driven by post wartime needs and the Disability Rights Movement, featuring key innovations like folding and electrical wheelchairs, leading to lighter materials, adaptive sports equipment, and later, power scooters - all enhancing independence. 

Note: 300,000 newly disabled soldiers returned from WWI and WWII, bringing the issues of assistance and accessibility to the forefront of the public’s mind.

In 1932, American engineer Harry Jennings created a lightweight folding wheelchair with a tubular steel frame for his friend, Herbert Everest.  This innovation led to the founding of Everest & Jennings, a company that manufactured folding wheelchairs, making them more accessible and easier to transport.

In 1932, American engineer Harry Jennings created a lightweight folding wheelchair made with tubular steel.

 

In 1952, Canadian inventor George Klein led a project to develop the first practical electric powered wheelchair, funded by Canadian Veterans Affairs and veterans’ organizations.  This battery-powered wheelchair aimed to assist WWII veterans who could not use manual wheelchairs, enabling greater independence for those with limited upper body strength.  The design was marketed by Everest & Jennings in 1956, leading to mass production.  From these early, bulky models, technology advanced significantly, incorporating lighter materials, better batteries, and sophisticated controls.

George Klein and assistant adjusting settings on the prototype of the first practical electric wheelchair in 1952.

 

Meanwhile, manual wheelchairs continued to improve, offering significant advances in materials, ergonomics, and customization to provide users with enhanced mobility, comfort, and independence.  Key innovations focused on ultra-lightweight frames, posture support, and greater adjustability to suit a dynamic lifestyle. 

A modern manual wheelchair.

 

Powered Mobility Scooters. Powered mobility scooters were introduced for the first time in the late 1960s, early 70s.   They were quite successful and seen as alternatives to the electric wheelchair. They were designed for people who can walk, but who cannot travel long distances on foot.

Most of the mobility scooters today are more advanced, electric-powered, and come with rechargeable batteries.  They typically feature lightweight frames (often aluminum or carbon fiber) and "feather-touch disassembly" into several manageable pieces that fit in a car trunk.  Many are airline-compliant and incorporate modern conveniences like USB charging ports.  They also usually include comfortable seating and a “basket” for personal items or shopping.  The distance they can travel is variable, but some of them can go up to 35 miles before recharging!

A modern battery-powered mobility scooter.

 

Disability Rights Movement. Starting in the mid-20^th century, the Disability Rights Movement was key to personal mobility aid development and acceptance.

The Disability Rights Movement was a global social and political effort to secure equal rights, opportunities, and inclusion for people with disabilities, demanding an end to discrimination and barriers in all aspects of life, from accessibility and education to employment.  Gaining significant traction in the 1960s and 1970s, inspired by the Civil Rights Movement, activists fought for the right to live independently and participate fully in society, achieving legal milestones that aim to guarantee equal treatment and reasonable accommodations.  Their efforts culminated in major U.S. legislation like the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, a landmark civil rights law prohibiting discrimination in employment, public services, transportation, and telecommunications. The ADA ensures that individuals with disabilities have the right to use mobility devices in all areas open to the public. 

The Disability Rights Movement spurred lighter materials like aluminum and titanium, leading to performance-focused sports wheelchairs (tennis, basketball).

 

21^st Century: Smart Technology & Advanced Mobility

The 21^st century has witnessed the start of a revolution in personal mobility aids through smart technology and lightweight materials like titanium and carbon fiber, moving beyond basic function to offer enhanced independence with features like artificial intelligence (AI) for navigation and health monitoring, internet of things (IoT)connectivity for performance tracking, voice control, and advanced ergonomics in wheelchairs, scooters, walkers, and rollators.  Innovations include smart canes, smart wheelchairs, all-terrain wheelchairs, GPS-enabled scooters, and ergonomic walkers - driven by growing populations needing assistance and stronger rights for disabled individuals, making devices more connected, user-friendly, and integrated into daily life. 

Note:  My sources talk about smart personal mobility aids as if they exist and have achieved “mainstream” status.  But I have not yet observed any smart personal mobility aids in use in my retirement community.

 

Future

The future of personal mobility aids involves smarter, lighter, and more integrated devices, driven by AI, IoT, and advanced materials, moving beyond basic support to offer predictive assistance, seamless connectivity with health technology, and enhanced independence through features like adaptive gait analysis, obstacle detection, and customizable ergonomic designs for walkers, wheelchairs, and scooters - addressing a growing global need for assistive technology. 

 

 

 

The only disability in life is a bad attitude. - Scott Hamilton

 

 

 

Sources

My principal sources include: “Mobility Aid,” Wikipedia.com; “The Evolution of Mobility Aids: New Technology & Possibilities,” neuronav.org; “The History of Personal Mobility Devices,” blog.stannah.co.nz; “From wheelchairs to wearables: The evolution of assistive technology,” hlk-ip.com; “Explore the History of Wheelchair: From Ancient Times to Modern Innovations,” braunability.com; “When Was the Wheelchair Invented?” historyhit.com; “The History of the Wheelchair,” sciencemuseum.org.uk; plus, numerous other online sources, including answers to many queries using Google in AI-Mode.