HISTORY126 - Personal Identification

Once again, I have Pat to thank for suggesting this topic as a blog article: personal identification.   After a little research, I was confident that I could learn a lot; the only question was how to approach it with an article of reasonable length.

Well, let me start; we’ll see how it goes.  After a short introduction, I will discuss the evolution of personal identification in three pieces: Early History (Antiquity to 18^th Century), Standardized Modern Physical IDs (19^th Century to Present), and Digitization (Late 20^th Century to Present).  I will finish with a look at Future Trends in Personal Identification.

I focus on personal identification history in Europe and the United States.

As usual, I will list my principal sources at the end.

 

Introduction

Personal Identification (ID) refers to data that identifies an individual, ranging from official documents like a driver's license or passport to specific codes like a Personal Identification Number (PIN) - a secret passcode for financial accounts - or unique identifiers used by organizations, all serving to verify someone's identity for access, transactions, or services.  

Personal IDs offer advantages like identity verification, streamlined access to services (banking, travel, voting), enhanced security (deterring crime/theft), and convenience (physical/digital), but have significant disadvantages including major privacy risks (surveillance, data misuse), security threats (hacking, identity theft), potential for social exclusion (access issues for marginalized groups), and increased government/corporate control, making them a balance between utility and liberty. 

Types of IDs today include:

Physical IDs (cards or passport books): Traditional, tangible, but can be lost, stolen, or forged.

Digital IDs: Convenient, online app-based, use biometrics (biological characteristics of an individual, such as face or fingerprints), but rely heavily on secure infrastructure and raise privacy concerns.

National IDs: Offer universal identification.  Issued by a country's government to verify an individual's identity and citizenship.  While many countries use a single, mandatory national ID system, the United States does not have one official, universal national ID card.  Instead, it relies on a combination of federal and state-issued documents for identification purposes.  National ID’s bring significant national security and privacy debates. 

The history of personal identification has evolved from ancient, informal methods to standardized physical IDs starting in the 19^th century, to digital methods starting in the 20^th century.

 

Early History (Antiquity to 18^th Century)

Physical Appearance, Jewelry, Tattoos. Personal ID started in ancient times, with physical appearance, jewelry, and tattoos.  Styles of clothing, hair, or even scars could communicate origin, beliefs, social standing, and identity within a community.  Decorative objects like jewelry held personal information such as wealth, identity, and family history.  The oldest beads were found in Africa and Israel, dating back to 100,000 years ago.  The Māori of New Zealand, used intricate tattoos to denote a person's ancestry, status, position, accomplishments, and marital status.  These served as a visual form of identification within their communities.

Drawing of a Māori facial tattoo – these patterns are unique to individuals.

 

Babylonian Census. In 3800 BC, the ancient Babylonians took a step toward personal ID by conducting the earliest known census, an inventory (count) of people, agricultural resources, and livestock (not an enumeration of individual people as understood in modern terms) for tracking populations, and taxation and food supply planning purposes. The records were inscribed on clay tablets. 

Babylonian Fingerprinting. Fingerprints were used in ancient Babylon (around 1900 BC) on clay tablets for business transactions or legal documents to prevent fraud and authenticate identity.  This shows that early societies understood the uniqueness of fingerprints long before modern science confirmed it.

 

Roman Empire. As time progressed, data collection methods became more sophisticated.  By the Roman Empire, personalized records served legal and civic purposes, leading to the creation of foundational documents such as birth registrations in ancient Rome, land deeds, and citizenship records.

In legal or commercial matters, the testimony of other reputable citizens was crucial for verifying an individual's identity.  Personal signet rings or stamps were used to authenticate documents by pressing them into wax or clay, a practice used by merchants and officials. 

The Romans conducted a sophisticated census every five years, where citizens declared their household members and property under oath. These records were stored in public archives and could be consulted to verify citizenship if a doubt arose.

Introduced during Emperor Augustus's reign (27 BC to AD 14, parents were required to register the birth of a child within 30 days. The resulting document was a hinged wooden tablet sealed by witnesses, which served as presumptive proof of citizenship for life.

Non-citizen auxiliary soldiers who completed 25 years of service were granted Roman citizenship and an honorable discharge certificate, known as a military diploma.  This bronze document was essentially a grant of citizenship for the soldier and his family, and functioned as a lifelong ID card.

Falsely claiming Roman citizenship was considered a severe crime and was punishable by death, serving as a strong deterrent against identity fraud. 

King Henry V Passports. King Henry V of England introduced early "passport" documents, called "safe conducts," around 1414, as official letters guaranteeing protection and free passage for his subjects traveling abroad under the monarch’s authority, marking the beginning of modern passport history.

Handwritten Signatures. During the 14^th to 17^th centuries, handwritten signatures transitioned from being a practice primarily for the nobility to a more common method of asserting personal identity and responsibility, especially in commerce and legal contexts.  This change was tied to rising literacy rates and a growing emphasis on individuality during the Renaissance. 

In the early part of this period, many people, including some educated individuals, still could not write their full names fluently.  Authentication often involved simple "marks," such as an "X" or an initial, often accompanied by a notary or witnesses who would attest to the signer's identity.  Elaborate wax seals were also common for official and noble documents.

The use of full, handwritten names became increasingly widespread as penmanship schools appeared and literacy expanded among the educated and merchant classes. Artists began signing their works to claim ownership and distinguish their talent in a burgeoning Europe-wide art market.

The English Parliament's enactment of the Statute of Frauds in 1677 was a pivotal moment, requiring all legal documents - including property transactions, wills, and leases - to be in writing and signed to prevent fraud. This cemented the handwritten signature as a legal gold standard for authentication, replacing previous reliance on seals or simple marks. 

In an era without modern photographic identification, personal identity was verified through several methods:  Signatures were compared against known samples kept on file (e.g., in bank ledgers or government records) to confirm a person's identity.  A known person would often physically vouch for the identity of a stranger or someone new to the area.  Authorities, like police, kept detailed written descriptions of individuals, noting height, weight, and distinguishing marks like tattoos or birthmarks. 

 

Standardized Modern Physical IDs (19^th Century to Present)

This era saw the development standardized physical IDs, including fingerprinting, photo IDs, birth certificates, passports, driver’s licenses, and social security cards with unique social security numbers for each individual.

Fingerprinting. European scientists in the 17^th and 18^th centuries had begun the scientific study of skin ridges (raised lines on fingertips and palms).  Italian biologist Marcello Malpighi observed loops and spirals in 1686, and Czech physiologist Johannes Purkinje classified nine specific patterns in 1823, though the idea of using them for unique identification was not yet fully formed.

The first systematic, modern use for identification occurred in 1858 when British civil servant Sir William Herschel required the palm prints (later, index and middle finger prints) of local pensioners on contracts in India to prevent fraudulent claims. 

Scottish physician Dr. Henry Faulds was one of the first to suggest using fingerprints in forensic science in 1880.  Sir Francis Galton conducted extensive research in the late 19^th century, statistically proving that fingerprints are unique to every individual and permanent, and categorizing them into three basic patterns: loops, whorls, and arches.

The Henry Classification System, developed by Sir Edward Henry in British India, provided a workable method for filing and retrieving fingerprint records, which was adopted by Scotland Yard in 1901, and became the standard in English-speaking countries.

The first systematic use of fingerprinting in the U.S. began in 1902 with the New York Civil Service Commission.  The FBI established its Identification Division in 1924 by consolidating fingerprint files from Leavenworth Penitentiary and the National Bureau of Criminal Identification, forming the basis of a national repository. 

Manual searching of fingerprint cards was a tedious process until the development of the first automated systems in the 1970s.  The FBI's Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System became operational in 1999, allowing for electronic submission and rapid matching.

The modern era has seen the introduction of digital Live Scan systems, the FBI's Next Generation Identification system, which expanded biometric capabilities to include palm and iris scans, and the integration of fingerprint sensors in personal electronic devices for security authentication.  Fingerprinting has become a cornerstone of identification and security in such fields as law enforcement and forensics, national security and border control, employment and professional licensing, financial security, and healthcare and social services.

Example of standard fingerprint card.

 

Photo IDs. The use of photo IDs has evolved significantly from early, informal uses to modern standardized, secure documents.  Photo identification was first introduced in the United States in 1876 at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, where Scottish-born photographer William Notman created the first paper-based photo ID, known as a "photographic ticket," for all exhibitors and employees to address admission concerns.  In the early 20^th century, the use of photos in identification documents became more common, appearing in passports and other IDs.  In 1958, the first state-issued driver's licenses to include photographs began to appear.

Photos are crucial for personal ID because they provide immediate visual verification, linking a face to a document to prevent fraud, theft, and unauthorized access, ensuring you are who you claim to be for everything from driving and travel to secure financial or healthcare transactions, by making impersonation extremely difficult.

Birth Certificates. The history of birth certificates in the United States is a long evolution from informal local and church records to a standardized, national system that determines identity and citizenship. 

The American colonies were slow to develop a formal registration system.  Virginia enacted a law in 1632, and Massachusetts in 1639, requiring ministers or town clerks to record births, marriages, and burials, but compliance was patchy, and the practice often died out quickly.  For centuries, documentation was primarily maintained through church baptismal records or family Bibles, not government entities.

A few major cities like Boston and New Orleans began recording vital records by the mid-1800s. Massachusetts was the first state to require state-level filing of vital records in 1844, with other states gradually following over many decades. 

The U.S. Census Bureau was established as a permanent agency in 1902, and authorized to develop national birth registration areas and standard forms. The first federal standard birth certificate form was developed in 1907.

In 1915, national birth-registration areas were established, and by 1933, all states were participating in and registering live births and deaths, although the use of standardized forms wasn't fully uniform until the 1930s.

New York's 1903 labor law was a key legislative reform that used the birth certificate as the primary document for verifying a child's age for employment, solidifying its role as a legal document for age and identity. 

The need for proof of American citizenship for defense-related jobs during WWII highlighted the necessity of a universal birth registration system, driving up compliance.

Responsibility for national vital statistics shifted from the Census Bureau to the U.S. Public Health Service in 1946, and finally to the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) in the 1960s, where it remains today under the Center for Disease Control and Prevention.

While NCHS develops recommended standard forms, states maintain the authority to issue their own documents, leading to some variation in appearance and content across jurisdictions.  Revisions continue to incorporate new data, such as parentage information and electronic record-keeping. 

A birth certificate is crucial for personal ID as the foundational document proving your legal existence, age, and U.S. citizenship, serving as the essential "feeder document" for getting all other IDs like passports, driver's licenses, and Social Security cards, and enabling access to education, healthcare, and government benefits.  A birth certificate is required for major life milestones, from school enrollment to joining the military, confirming you are who you say you are. 

Arizona Birth Certificate form.

 

Passports.  King Henry V of England got the ball rolling with his “safe conduct” papers in 1414.  For centuries, similar letters were issued by powerful nobles or government officials, requesting that the bearer be granted entry and protection.  Before the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries, passports were often optional for travel within Europe and the U.S. borders, and they did not always contain physical descriptions of the bearer. 

The modern passport as a mandatory identification document was a direct consequence of World War I.  European governments introduced border controls and required passports for security reasons, largely to identify foreign agents.  The U.S. followed suit after a German spy used a stolen American passport in 1914.

In December 1914, U.S. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan required that all passports include a photograph to enhance security and verify the bearer's identity, as previous written descriptions were vague.

The League of Nations organized conferences in the 1920s, resulting in the first international standards for passport format, size, and content (including a photograph and physical description) to facilitate recognition and deter fraud. 

By the late 1930s and early 1940s, the passport had settled into its modern form and was generally accepted as the primary form of documented identity for international travel.  In 1941, passports became mandatory for all U.S. citizens traveling abroad.

The International Civil Aviation Organization established standards for machine-readable passports in 1980.

In the 21^st century, the rise of international terrorism led to the introduction of enhanced security features, including embedded microchips with biometric data (fingerprints and facial scans) to authenticate identity and prevent fraud. 

Today, passports are a crucial tool for both national security and international mobility, serving as prima facie evidence of a person's identity and nationality. 

Example of U.S. passport.

 

Driver’s License. The concept of the driver's license originated in the late 19^th century as a way to regulate the increasing number of automobiles and address public safety concerns. 

In 1888, the first personal driving permit was issued to Karl Benz, inventor of the modern car, in Germany.

In 1899, Chicago and New York were among the first U.S. cities to have some form of registration for motor vehicles.  In 1903, Massachusetts and Missouri were the first states to require a license to operate a car, though initially no test was needed; the license was simply an identification card.  Licensing and tests were slow to catch on.  It wasn’t until 1959, that all states required driver’s licenses and a test.

In 1958, photographs started being included on California driver's licenses, a practice that eventually became standard nationwide.

From the 1990s-present, drivers licenses became more secure with advanced security features to prevent forgery. 

Today, licenses are generally plastic cards containing personal information and security features, serving as a primary form of identification in the United States. 

Example of Arizona Driver’s License.

 

Social Security Cards.  The Social Security Number (SSN) was created in 1936 (resulting from the Social Security Act of 1935) as a simple, nine-digit numerical identifier solely for the purpose of tracking the earnings history of U.S. workers for retirement benefits.  It has since evolved into a nearly universal national identifier used across government and the private sector. 

Initially, the SSN was only for the Social Security program; however, the number's utility led to its expanded use.  In 1943, federal agencies were required to use SSNs for any new identification systems.  In 1962, the IRS adopted the SSN as the official taxpayer identification number for federal income tax reporting.  In 1965, the creation of Medicare made it necessary for most individuals age 65 and older to have an SSN.  In 1969-1974, the Department of Defense adopted the SSN in lieu of military service numbers for all armed forces personnel.  In 1970, banks and financial institutions were required to obtain SSNs from all customers.  In 1986, the Tax Reform Act required parents to provide SSNs for dependents older than five to claim them for tax deductions, which led to the "Enumeration at Birth" program, making it standard for parents to apply for a child's SSN soon after birth. 

The SSN is now a de facto national identifier required for numerous activities, such as opening a bank account, applying for a loan, or getting a job.  This widespread use has, in turn, led to increased concerns about identity theft and data security. 

 

Example of Social Security card displaying the SSN.

Note:  To combat identity theft with SSNs, the IRS since 2011 has aided certain taxpayers by issuing them an identity protection personal identification number (IP PIN), a unique six-digit number, which helps the IRS verify taxpayers' identity and accept their filed tax returns.  An IP PIN is valid for one calendar year, with a new number issued annually.

 

Digitization (Late 20^th Century to Present)

The digitization era of personal identification started with the development of the digital computer and the internet, and evolved from paper-based physical records to digitized records, the rise of online authentication methods, the integration of biometrics, and the ongoing transition to digital IDs.  This evolution was driven by increasing populations, security needs, and technological advances, and reflects the growing complexity of governance and the need for standardized systems in modern society.

Computerization of Records (1960s-1980s). James Goodfellow invented the Personal Identification Number (PIN) for ATMs in the 1960s.

The digital age of identification began in earnest in the U.S. in the 1970s and 1980s when paper records were computerized.  This laid the technical groundwork for digital identity management, allowing the government to cross-reference information across banks, and federal agencies to verify eligibility for programs and ensure tax compliance. 

The Internet and Centralized Digital Identity (1990s-early 2000s).  In the early days of the internet, digital identity was largely managed by online service providers, using usernames and passwords as the primary form of authentication, that became standard practice for email and social media, creating informal digital identities.  Phone numbers, security questions, and Know Your Customer rules became common for digital verification. 

Credit bureaus also developed "financial fingerprints" that became an early form of digital identity used for financial services.

Post-9/11 Security Measures. The September 11 attacks spurred a renewed focus on secure identification.  This led to the passage of the REAL ID Act of 2005, which established stringent federal security standards for state-issued identification documents like driver's licenses.

Advanced Biometrics in the Mainstream (2010s). Biometric technology, which had been used by law enforcement since the early 1900s, became widely adopted by consumers.  Apple introduced Touch ID (fingerprint scanning) in 2013, followed by Face ID (facial recognition) in 2017, bringing biometric authentication into everyday personal devices.

Concept of digital identity on mobile devices.

 

The digital age brought the integration of biometric data into large-scale databases.  Biometric technology itself advanced, including improvements in speech recognition, iris recognition, facial recognition, and DNA sequencing.  The ability to store and analyze vast amounts of biometric information transformed identity management.  Governments and organizations could now use sophisticated algorithms to process and interpret biometric data on a massive scale. 

Mobile Digital IDs and Digital Wallets (Present Day). The current trend involves the use of smartphone applications (digital wallets) to securely store digital versions of physical IDs, allowing streamlined processes and contactless payments, allowing consumers to pay by hovering, or lightly tapping, their physical card, smartphone, or wearable device within 1–2 inches of a terminal equipped with the contactless symbol.  This digital ID technology is still in its early stages of deployment across the U.S., with acceptance varying by state and federal agency. The goal is to increase convenience for accessing services while maintaining security and privacy protections. 

In 2022, passkeys were introduced.  Passkeys are a modern, secure replacement for passwords, using your device's built-in biometrics (fingerprint, face scan) or PIN to log you into websites and apps, eliminating the need to remember complex passwords. They are phishing-resistant, can't be guessed, and sync securely across devices via password managers or cloud services, offering stronger security and easier logins for a passwordless future.  

 

Future Trends

The future of digital identity involves balancing security, privacy, and usability.  The U.S. approach generally involves digitizing existing forms of identification rather than implementing a new, centralized national ID system. 

Stricter data privacy laws and growing consumer demand are pushing organizations toward greater transparency and user consent models.  This encourages the use of privacy-enhancing technologies that minimize data collection and storage. 

We now have an unprecedented need to prevent identity fraud, while managing the public’s low tolerance for complicated authentication processes.

The future of personal identification includes:

Digital IDs. The continuing rise of digital IDs will provide individuals with greater control over their personal information.  Users will have the ability to decide when, where, and how they share their identity data, making it easier to access age-gated services, travel, and other forms of authentication securely.

Biometric Authentication, Advancements will include “liveness” detection to prevent spoofing via deepfakes or photos, and behavioral biometrics that analyze unique user patterns (like typing or swiping style) for continuous authentication.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Integration. AI will enhance identity management by automating verification workflows, detecting fraud in real-time through behavior and anomaly detection, and managing authentication systems.  AI will help analyze user activity to identify unusual login patterns or potential threats.

“Passwordless” and Phishing-Resistant Authentication. The goal is to eliminate traditional passwords, a primary source of security breaches. This will be achieved through the growing use of multi-factor authentication and passkeys.

Zero Trust Security. This security framework will operate on the principle of "never trust, always verify," even within a secure network.  Every access request will be strictly verified, integrating continuous monitoring and authentication to minimize the risk of breaches, which is crucial for remote work environments.

 

 

The choices we make today in balancing security, privacy, and usability will shape the future of identity verification and, ultimately, the society we live in.

 

 

Sources

My principal sources include: “Identity document” and “Photo identification,” wikipedia.com; “From Babylon to biometrics: The epic evolution of IDs,” veriff.com; “100,000 years of identity verification: an infographic history,” trulioo.com; “A Brief History of Identity Verification,” idura.eu; “The evolution of identity verification,” laxton.com; “The history of biometrics” recfaces.com; “2025 Predictions for the Future of Digital Identity,” identitly.com; plus, numerous other online sources, including answers to many queries using Google in AI Mode.