HISTORY102 - Women's Sports

Women’s sports have been in the news a lot lately, especially the notoriety of Caitlin Clark in professional basketball and the upcoming Olympic Games.  Today, with the overall participation of women in sports expanding, the growing popularity of women’s sports, and greatly increased media attention, it seemed like a good time to write about the history of women’s sports, and the long struggle for equal opportunity with men’s sports.

 

After a short introduction, I will discuss the history of women’s sports in three eras:  ancient civilizations; the early modern area, the 1800s to the 1970s - including non-competitive activities, the Olympic Games, and early college sports; and the late modern era, the 1970s to the present - including the Olympics; key (equal opportunity) legislation, Title IX, and professional women’s sports.  I will conclude with a snapshot of women’s sports progress since Title IX, and an assessment of actions needed to completely close the gender gap.

I will list my principal sources at the end.

 

Introduction

Sports are athletic activities requiring skill or physical prowess, and often of a competitive nature, as tennis, soccer, golf, basketball, softball, etc.

Women took part in competitive sports, on a limited basis, in ancient times, but by the Middle Ages in Europe, women’s participation in sports was frowned upon as inappropriate.  Women's games were primarily limited to bat and ball games such as stoolball and rounders, and board games.

In the 1800s, women in America began to participate in some competitive sports.  But the public attitude toward sports for women changed from positive to strongly negative during the ultra-conservative reign of Queen Victoria of England (1837 to 1901), when women were regarded as gentle and frail, and any form of strenuous activity was strongly discouraged.   Sporting activities for women became recreational rather sport-specific and competitive.  They were informal, and rule-less; they emphasized light physical activity.

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, women began to form clubs that were athletic in nature, but efforts to limit women’s competitive sports continued in America until Federal Legislation, commonly referred to as Title IX, became law in 1972.  It required American society to recognize a woman’s right to participate in sports on a basis equal to that of men. 

Today, women are active in competitive sports, in numbers and variety of sport disciplines, approaching parity with men.  Much progress has been made since Title IX, but additional efforts to close the gender gap are needed.

 

Ancient Civilizations  

Women participated in sports in several ancient civilizations, including:  Egypt, Greece, China, Rome, and the Pre-Columbian Americas.

Egyptian artwork depicts women wrestling as early as 3000 BC.  Around 2000 BC, illustrations on Egyptian temple walls showed women exercising and playing ball games.

In Homer’s Odyssey (c. 8^th century BC), he tells the story of Odysseus waking up to the sound of Princess Nausicaa and her handmaidens playing ball with one another on a river bank.

Before each ancient Olympic Games (6^th century BC) in Greece, a separate women's athletic event, called the Heraean Games, was held at the stadium in Olympia, and dedicated to Hera, goddess of marriage, women, and childbirth.  There were foot races for maidens of various ages. The maidens ran with their hair down their backs, a short tunic reaching just below the knee, and their right shoulder bare to the breast. The victors received crowns of olive, and had the right of setting up their statues in the Heraeum temple.

A statue of a winner of the Heraean Games, represented near the start of a race.

In the 4^th century BC, Grecian women in Sparta began to practice the same athletic exercises that men did, exhibiting the qualities of Spartan soldiers.  Plato even supported women in sports by advocating running and sword-fighting for women.  Spartan women participated in competitive sports as men did; wrestling, javelin throwing, foot racing, and discus.

In China, in the Han Dynasty-era (AD 25 - 220), frescoes depict women playing the ancient game of Tsu Chu, an ancient Chinese ball game that is the predecessor of modern-day soccer. 

In Rome in the 2^nd century AD, contemporary writers and historians described female gladiators fighting.

A Roman fresco from the first half of the 4^th century AD, shows women participating in various athletic activities, including medicine ball, weightlifting, and playing with a little rubber ball. Other women are depicted receiving laurel crowns for winning competitions, and just … working out.

The so-called bikini mosaic showing Roman women engaged in sports.

In the Pre-Columbian era (to 1492), in the Americas, women from many indigenous tribes participated in sports such as foot races, swimming, stick and ball games, and wrestling contests.  

 

Early Modern Era:  1800s to 1970s

In the 1800s, women in America began to participate in such competitive sports as skating, golf, rowing, croquet, baseball, tennis, bicycle racing, running and jumping events, softball, basketball, and even boxing. But the public attitude toward sports for women changed from positive to strongly negative during the ultra-conservative reign of Queen Victoria of England (1837 to 1901).  Two significant programs eventually helped restore positive attitudes towards women’s sports and spurred significant growth:  the Olympic Games and collegiate sports.

Pushback on Competitive Sports.  The Victorian age in Western European and North American cultures ushered in an era of immense sexism, and put a damper on women’s sports.  The ideal Victorian woman was gentle and frail, and any form of strenuous activity was strongly discouraged.  Myths surrounding women included those that women could harm their reproductive organs or menstrual cycle, if they participated in sports, which would make them unattractive to men, and that they only had a finite amount of energy in their bodies, and wasting that energy on sports or higher education would lead to weak offspring.

Women's sports in the late 1800s generally focused on correct posture, facial and bodily beauty, muscles, and health.  Activities for women were recreational rather than sport-specific in nature and emphasized light physical activity rather than competition.  Sports for women before the 20^th century placed more emphasis on fitness rather than the competitive aspects we now associate with organized sports.

Horseback riding and bicycling for pleasure, and swimming, became fashionable, but women were not encouraged to exert themselves. 

As more women sought to become involved in physical activity, they became more competitive.  In the late 1800s and early 1900s, women began to form informal athletic clubs.  Tennis, croquet, bowling, and archery were popular in clubs from New York to New Orleans.  Many men’s clubs allowed women to become associates and to participate in separate activities, though without according them full status. 

Despite some women competing in intercollegiate sports, the period between 1900 and 1929 was generally a period of push back from males, administrations, and leaders against female athletes.  Even though women had proved that they would not fall over at the sight of sweat, it seemed the sight of a woman working hard was unsettling for some.   

 Although women were technically permitted to participate in many sports, relatively few did.  Those who did participate often faced disapproval.

Olympics.  The modern Olympic Games had female competitors from 1900 onward, though women at first participated in considerably fewer events than men.  Women first made their appearance in the Olympic Games in Paris in 1900.  That year, 22 women competed only in tennis, sailing, croquet, equestrian, and golf.  

 

Charlotte Cooper of the United Kingdom was the first female Olympic champion (tennis) in the 1900 Games.

According to the Olympic Charter, the role of the governing International Olympic Committee (IOC) was “to encourage and support the promotion of women in sport at all levels and in all structures, with a view to implementing the principle of equality of men and women.”  In 1912, however, IOC founder, Frenchman Pierre de Coubertin, described women's sports as "impractical, uninteresting, unaesthetic, and we are not afraid to add: incorrect.”  Concern over the physical strength and stamina of women led to the discouragement of female participation in more physically strenuous sports.

In 1924, the first Winter Olympics took place, with women competing only in figure skating. 

Because of the lack of support for women's international sports in the Olympic Games, several women-only Olympiads, with more physically demanding events, such as track and field, were held between 1921 and 1934.

In response, the IOC began to incorporate greater participation of women at the Olympics.  The number of Olympic women athletes increased over five-fold between 1920 and 1936, going from 65 at the 1920 Summer Olympics to 331 at the 1936 Summer Olympics.  In 1936, there were 15 events for women and 114 for men.

At the 1972 Summer Olympics, 1,041 women competed in 43 events (there were 152 events for men), and represented 14.1% of the total 7,134 athletes.

Early College Sports.  Women began to participate in intercollegiate sports when basketball was introduced at Smith College in 1892.  Basketball quickly spread to other colleges, and students began to clamor for intercollegiate play.  The first teams to compete in women’s intercollegiate athletics were the basketball teams of the University of California, Berkeley and Stanford University; they played in 1896.

Competitive sports for college women, and college athletic programs for women, increased in the early 1900s.  By 1920, 22% of universities in the U.S. had women’s athletic programs.  In 1916 the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) held its first national championship for women (in swimming).  In 1923 the AAU also sponsored the First American Track & Field championships for women. 

The 1915 Radcliff varsity hockey team.

Also, in 1923, the Women’s Division-National Amateur Athletic Federation (NAAF) was formed to organize intercollegiate competition among women.  The NAAF provided a forum for women’s physical educators and leaders of women’s sports to formalize their beliefs in a policy statement.  That statement was negative to competition and, therefore, virtually all forms of competitive sports for college women decreased in the 1920s and 1930s.

In the 1930s, college sports for women generally consisted of intramural competition rather than between the institutions.  Competitions included club, and sorority matches.  By 1936, 70% of colleges surveyed used this as a predominant form of sport participation for women.  Also, many competitive women’s athletic programs were replaced with game days and fitness classes.

But there were social movements afoot that would dramatically impact women’s sports.

The national women’s suffrage movement resulted in the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920.  The right to vote for women renewed emphasis on women’s freedoms.  This first feminist movement resulted in modest gains for women in sports and intercollegiate competition, but these gains were negated by the depression in the 1930s.  The depression left millions of Americans out of work, and the resulting campaign to keep women home and out of the work force left the women’s movement for broadened equal rights stagnating.  The expectations of society were that a woman’s place was “in the home,” which pushed aside the idea that there were psychological and physiological benefits to be gained from involvement in sport. 

The 1940s brought war to the United States and millions of men entered the military.  Many women joined the military service or left their positions as homemakers to fill the void left in the work force, earning the moniker, “Rosie the Riveter.”  They demonstrated that they were equal to the task.  The self-esteem and self-confidence gained by women during these critical times propelled the movement for women’s equal rights.  Many women believed that if they could compete successfully in the work force, then they could certainly compete on the athletic fields. 

Note:  World War II also saw the advent of the first woman’s professional athletic team.  The All-American Girls Baseball League was started in 1943 as an attempt to replace Major League Baseball, which had been canceled due to the war.   Although holding strict standards for how women had to dress and act, it was seen as radical at the time.  When World War II ended, and men’s Major League Baseball resumed, the women’s professional league was discontinued.  The Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA) was founded in 1950, and is still active today.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the social conscience of America was changing.  The push for Civil Rights, which culminated in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, helped increase the status of women and minorities.  Feminist activism propelled the movement for women’s rights forward.  The United States became embroiled in the debate for an Equal Rights Amendment.   This debate raised the consciousness of those involved in women’s sports.  Collegiate women seeking greater athletic opportunities moved closer to their goals in 1957, when the long-entrenched official position statement of the Division for Girls and Women in Sport (DGWS), which had replaced the NAAF, was amended to state that intercollegiate programs “may” exist.  In 1963, the DGWS view of women in sport evolved further to state that it was “desirable” that intercollegiate programs for women exist.

In 1966, a Commission on Intercollegiate Sports for Women was formed to assist in conducting intercollegiate competitions.  The women’s movement in sport was rapidly moving toward a status more in line with men’s athletics.  In 1969, a schedule of national championships for women’s sports was announced that included gymnastics and track and field.  Swimming, badminton, and volleyball followed in 1970, and in 1972, basketball was added. 

 

Late Modern Era:  1970s to Present

The positive trend in women’s sports dramatically accelerated in this period.  Women’s participation in the Olympic Games, and the number of events open to them, continued to grow.  Groundbreaking Title IX of the Education Act in 1972 guaranteed that women had equal opportunity with men in education and in sports.  Professional sports for women were reestablished in the mid-to-late 1900s, and from the 2000s grew rapidly. 

Olympics.  In 1986, there was a shift in policy away from the IOC’s traditionally strict requirement for amateur status for competing athletes.  This resulted from decades of “undeclared” professional athletes from Eastern Bloc countries participating in the Games.  The situation greatly disadvantaged American and Western European athletes, and was a major factor in the decline of American medal hauls in the 1970s and 1980s.  Allowing participation of professional athletes benefited both male and female athletes.  See below for a discussion of women’s professional athletics.

From the 1970s on, more and more women competed in the Olympic Games. 

And more and more events were added for women.  Since 2012, women have participated in all categories of Olympic sports at the Games.  And all new sports included in the Olympic Games today must contain women's events.  At the 2020 Summer Olympics, 5,457 women competed in 165 events, while 5,982 men competed in 174 events. 

Jackie Joyner-Kersee, often referred to as the First Lady of American athletics, competed in four Olympic Games for the US. from 1984 to 1996, earning medals in both the women's heptathlon and the women's long jump.  She earned an astounding three gold, one silver, and two bronze medals.  Here, she jumps to her second gold medal in the Seoul Olympic women's long jump final, September 19, 1988.

 

Title IX. The roots of Title IX go back to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which made it illegal to discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion or national origin - but made no mention of discrimination based on sex.  Women were included in the Civil Rights Act only in Title VII, an amendment that addressed equal employment opportunity, but did not apply to educational institutions, among other areas.

Before Title IX, girls and women faced discrimination and unequal treatment in many areas of education.  Female students were sometimes barred from certain male-only courses or fields of study, including everything from wood shop and calculus to criminal justice, law, and medicine.  Some U.S. colleges and universities discouraged women from attending, or established quotas that limited the number of female students regardless of how qualified they were compared to male applicants.  Others denied tenure to female professors, or refused to hire them at all.

Key Provisions.  In 1972, President Richard Nixon signed the Education Amendments Act of 1972, which included Title IX, into law.  Senator Birch Bayh of Indiana, who introduced the amendment in the Senate and helped guide the bill through Congress, called it “an important first step in the effort to provide for the women of America something that is rightfully theirs.”

Key provision of Title IX.

The landmark gender equity law banned sex discrimination in federally funded education programs.  Its protections opened doors for girls and women in admission, academic majors, teaching positions, vocational programs, and individual classes, and helped ensure equal access and treatment once they got in.

Contrary to popular belief, Title IX initially had nothing to do with sports, and would not include interscholastic or varsity sports until modifications to the law in 1975 and 1979.  Since then, Title IX requires schools to provide equal athletic opportunities for students regardless of sex - in the form of equal sports facilities and equal benefits. The equal benefits are considered necessities such as equal equipment, uniforms, supplies, training, practice, quality in coaches and opponents, awards, cheerleaders, and bands at the game.

Despite its broad aims and applications, Title IX is most famous for its impact on expanding opportunities for women and girls in sports.  In 1972, there were just over 300,000 women and girls playing high school and college sports in the United States.  Female athletes received only two percent of college athletic budgets, while athletic scholarships for women were virtually nonexistent.

The Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) was founded to govern collegiate women's athletics and to administer national championships.

Sports participation rates for women exploded every single year since Title IX was passed.  See the “Progress Since Title IX” section below for the current statistics. 

Controversy Over the Law.  Organizations like the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) challenged Title IX’s legality (and wanted to control women’s athletics as they did men’s), while others argued that Title IX should apply only to educational programs that directly receive federal funds. 

In 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court agreed with this interpretation in Grove City v. Bell, effectively removing Title IX coverage of athletics except for athletic scholarships.  Passage of the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 (over President Ronald Reagan’s veto) reversed that decision, and reinstituted Title IX’s broad coverage for any educational institution receiving any federal funds.

Meanwhile, the NCAA succeeded in taking control of women’s athletics.  The NCAA was a powerful adversary for the AIAW because of its wealth, political influence, and long history.  The NCAA offered to: (a) pay all expenses for women’s teams competing in a national championship, (b) charge no additional membership fees for schools to add women’s programs, (c) create financial aid, recruitment, and eligibility rules that were the same for women as for men, and finally, (d) guarantee women more television coverage.  The AIAW could not compete with the NCAA inducements, and the loss of membership, income, championship sponsorship, and media rights forced the AIAW to cease operations in 1982, leaving the NCAA in control.

The 1990s and beyond saw continued legal challenges to Title IX, as well as several lawsuits alleging the violation of its protections.  Legal cases have provided more guidance for Title IX compliance elements.  That path over 50 years has been bumpy; today up to 80% of higher education institutions are still out of compliance.

While its ultimate promise is still “a work in progress,” positive efforts continue.

2022 Sports Illustrated cover honoring the 50^th anniversary of Title IX - showing the diversity of women’s sports today.

 

Professional Women’s Sports.  Several women’s professional sports and parenting associations were established, following the LPGA in 1950.  These include the Women’s Tennis Association (1973), National Pro Fastpitch Softball League (2004), and the National Women’s Soccer League (2013).  There were several attempts to start a women’s professional basketball league, but it wasn’t until 1996 that the Women’s National Basketball Association that we have today was formed.  The Athletes Unlimited Volleyball League was founded in 2021, and the Pro Volleyball Federation was founded in 2022, and began its first season in 2024.

For years, the pay for women's professional sports was significantly lower than it was in men's professional sports.  Female professional athletes often played in smaller lower-quality facilities than male professional athletes due to low attendance.  Women's professional sports were rarely broadcast regularly on live television.  

The pay “gap” began to change in 1973 when Billie Jean King won "the Battle of the Sexes," her famous tennis match with Bobby Riggs, and cracked the glass ceiling on pay for female athletes.  Other players, like Martina Navratilova, broke through that ceiling as well, decreasing the gap between women and men athletes' pay on a regular basis rather than occasionally.

Slowly, women’s professional sports became more popular, facilities improved, there was more media and TV coverage, superstars emerged, and pay for women in professional sports began to increase. 

A snapshot of the eight highest paid women athletes in the world in 2023 is shown below.

 

All of these athletes are from the tennis world except Eileen Gu, a freestyle skier.  (The next highest group of eight includes golf, soccer, basketball, and gymnastics athletes.)

 

Progress Since Title IX

Women’s sports have enjoyed increased popularity, and visibility in recent years, thanks in part to successful international and national events, such as the 2023 FIFA Women’s World Cup (soccer), the Women’s Tennis Association tour, and the Ladies Professional Golf Tour.  Of particular note are the 2024 U.S. Women’s NCAA Basketball championships and the first half of the 2024 Women’s National (professional) Basketball season - both of which featured the emergence of superstar female basketball player Caitlin Clark, resulting in an explosion of interest, attendance, and TV ratings for Caitlin Clark and women’s basketball.  Al of these events have attracted burgeoning audiences and substantial media attention.

Caitlin Clark has emerged as a current superstar in women’s basketball.

The emergence of female role models and inspiring athlete in the past decades has bolstered the realm of women’s sports.  Affecting not only the popularity of female sports, but also addressing issues like gender, racial, social discrimination, and participating in humanitarian causes, figures like Wilma Rudolph, Billie Jean King, Serena and Venus Williams, Nadia Comaneci, Danica Patrick, and many others, have garnered global acclaim and significantly elevated the status of women in sports.  Digital platforms and social media have furnished female athletes with the means to connect with fans and champion their respective sports, thereby amplifying the visibility of women’s sports.

Since Title IX was passed in 1972, women’s sports have progressed a long way.  Before Title IX, only 1 in 27 girls played sports.  Today, that number is 2 in 5.  Female participation in high school and college sports has risen dramatically. Today, females receive 59% of all college scholarships. The diversity of women’s sports has mushroomed, and today, participation in, and the scope of sports played, rivals men’s sports.  Some examples of this progress are shown below:

Participation of boys and girls in high school sports.

 

Participation in college sports.

 

Today, women’s participation in, and diversity of sports, rivals that of men’s sports.

 

Closing the Gender Gap

Note:  Much of this section was adapted from “Bridging the Gender Gap in Sports: A Call to Action,” published on March 4, 2024 by the Royal Examiner news website.

The world of sports, long dominated by men, has witnessed tremendous progress, yet disparities remain.  Despite the shining examples set by superstars in women’s tennis, golf, basketball, soccer, and a handful of other sports, women athletes continue to face unequal treatment and representation.  The imbalance is evident in sports management positions, media coverage, revenue generation, and societal attitudes towards female athletes.  Here are key areas where action is needed:

Management Positions.  Although female participation in sports has increased due to Title IX, there has not been a similar effect in terms of women holding coaching or other team managerial positions, like front office jobs. This also includes IOC members and college athletic directors.  There has been some progress here, but much more is needed.

Media Representation.  Women’s sports constitute a mere fraction of global media content, so female athletes struggle to gain visibility necessary to attract sponsorships and build a fan base.  Increasing media coverage of women’s sport is essential to elevate their profile and ensure they receive the recognition they deserve.

Economic Disparities.  The revenue and pay gap between male and female athletes are stark, with only a handful of women making it to the list of the world’s highest paid athletes.  This discrepancy is not just about salaries and prize money, but also endorsements and sponsorships, which are significantly lower for women.  Addressing this gap requires a concerted effort from leagues, associations, and sponsors to invest in women’s sports an create more equitable earning opportunities.

Combang Stereotypes.  Persistent sexist stereotypes continue to undermine women’s sports, with female athletes often being labeled as less capable or physically inferior to their male counterparts.  Challenging these stereotypes is crucial to changing perceptions and encouraging more women and girls to participate in sports.  This involves promoting positive role models, highlighting the achievements of female athletes, and fostering a culture of inclusivity and respect on all sporting disciplines.

Encouraging Participation.  From a young age, girls face societal and cultural barriers that discourage them from participating in sports.  Encouraging girls to engage in physical activity and pursue athletic endeavors is vital for nurturing future generations of female athletes.  Schools, community organizations, and sports leagues play a pivotal role in providing equal opportunities for girls to discover and develop their sporting talents.

Celebrating Progress.  While challenges persist, it’s also important to celebrate the strides made toward gender equality in sports.  The upcoming Paris 2024 Olympic Games, set to feature an equal number of male and female athletes, marks a historic step toward achieving gender balance on the world’s biggest sporting stage.  This milestone serves as a reminder of the possible progress when commitment to equality is implemented.

 

 

Sources

My primary sources include:  “Women in Sports,” “Timeline of women’s sports,” Participation of women in the Olympics,” and “Women’s professional sports,” en.wikipedia.org; “A History of Women in Sports Prior to Title IX,” thesportjournal.org; “A Brief History of Women in Sports,” kinesiology.csp.edu; “How Title IX Transformed Women’s Sports,” history.com; “Women in Sports and Gaming During Medieval Times,” discover.hubpages.com; “Summer Olympics: number of evens by gender,” statista.com; “The Rise of Women’s Professional Sports,” exhibits.library.gsu.edu; “Bridging the Gender Gap in Sports: A Call to Action,” royalexaminer.com; “The World’s Highest-Paid Female Athletes 2023,” forbes.com; plus numerous other online sources.