HISTORY87 - Vancouver Island and the San Juan Islands

Pat and I have a trip scheduled in Fall 2024 - a small boat cruise to visit Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and islands off its eastern coast.  We will also visit the nearby San Juan Islands in the U.S. Pacific Northwest.  As usual, I wanted to research and document the history of our travel destination before making the trip.

After a short introduction, I will start with a discussion of the travel region’s geography, geology, climate, and ecology.  Then I will discuss the history of our destination, including indigenous people, European exploration, British settlement, Canadian federation, and growth to today. 

My principal sources include: “Vancouver Island,” “San Juan Island,” and “Victoria, British Columbia,” Wikipedia.com; “Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada,” Britannica.com; “History and Heritage of Vancouver Island,” vanacouverisland.com; “B.C. History Moments in Time,” canadashistory.ca; plus numerous other online sources.

Most of my discussion will feature Vancouver Island, the principal destination of our trip.  I will only discuss the San Juan Islands when there is something unique to talk about.

Introduction

Vancouver Island is an island in the northeastern Pacific Ocean and part of the Canadian province of British Columbia.  The island is the largest by area and the most populous along the west coasts of the Americas. 

Indigenous peoples have inhabited Vancouver Island for thousands of years, long before the arrival of European naval expeditions in the late 18^th century. 

The island was surveyed in 1792 by Englishman George Vancouver, who the island is named after.  Vancouver Island was held by the British Hudson’s Bay Company until it was made a British crown colony in 1849.  In 1866 it was united with the mainland colony of British Columbia, which entered the Dominion of Canada in 1871 as a Canadian province, with Victoria, the island’s chief city, as the provincial capital.

The population of Vancouver Island was 864,864 as of 2021.  Nearly half of that population (~400,000) live in the metropolitan area of Greater Victoria on the southeastern tip of the island.  Other cities and towns on Vancouver Island are much smaller and mostly along the coast.

The island’s main industries today include lumbering, fishing, mining (coal, iron ore, and copper), agriculture (dairy products, fruits, and vegetables), and tourism. 

The San Juan Islands are an archipelago in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, between the U.S. state of Washington and Vancouver Island, just north of Victoria.  The San Juan Islands are part of Washington state; four of the islands are accessible to vehicular and foot traffic via the Washington State Ferries system.

Geography

Vancouver Island is 283 miles in length, 62 miles in width at its widest point, and about 12,400 square miles in total area.

Vancouver Island is just southwest of mainland British Columbia and northwest of Seattle, USA.

 

It is separated from the mainland of British Columbia by Queen Charlotte Strait on the north and by the Strait of Georgia on the east.  The Strait of Juan de Fuca to the island’s south, separates it from the United States.  West of the island is the open Pacific Ocean.

The island extends along a northwest-southeast axis paralleling the mainland, and is the top of a partially submerged mountain system.  It has a heavily wooded, mountainous interior with several peaks of more than 7,000 feet.  Flanked on the east by a coastal plain, its coastline, especially on the west, is deeply indented with fjords.  The interior of the island has many lakes and rivers.

At 7,201 feet, Golden Hinde Mountain is the highest peak on Vancouver Island.

 

The southern part of Vancouver Island and some of the nearby Gulf Islands are the only parts of British Columbia or Western Canada to lie south of the 49^th parallel. 

The San Juan Islands, at mean high tide, comprise over 400 islands and rocks, 128 of which are named, and over 478 miles of shoreline.

Most of the San Juan Islands are quite hilly, with some flat areas and valleys in between, often quite fertile. The tallest peak is Mount Constitution, on Orcas Island, at an elevation of 2,407 feet.  The coastlines are a mix of sandy and rocky beaches, shallow inlets and deep harbors, placid coves, and reef-studded bays.

The U.S. San Juan Islands are just east of Victoria, British Columbia.  Note the international boundary line that swings south from the 49^th parallel so that all of Vancouver Island belongs to Canada.

 

Geology

Vancouver Island is mostly made up of volcanic and sedimentary rock which were formed offshore starting around 55 million years ago.  An ongoing violent geologic process has led to Vancouver Island being one of the most seismically active regions in Canada.

The area has been known to host megathrust earthquakes in the past, the last being the Cascadia earthquake of 1700. The Forbidden Plateau, in the east of the Vancouver Island Ranges, was the epicenter of the 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake that registered 7.3 on the moment magnitude scale, the strongest ever recorded on land in Canada.

Climate

The climate of Vancouver Island is the mildest in Canada, with temperatures on the coast, even in January, usually above 32 °F.  In summer, the warmest days usually have a maximum of 82-91 °F.  The southeastern part of the island notably has a warm summer Mediterranean climate. 

The rain shadow effect of the island's mountains, as well as the mountains of Washington's Olympic Peninsula, create wide variation in precipitation.  The west coast is considerably wetter than the east coast.  Average annual precipitation ranges from 262 inches at Hucuktlis Lake on the west coast (making it the wettest place in North America) to only 23.9 inches at Victoria Gonzales, the driest recording station in the provincial capital of Victoria.  Precipitation is heaviest in the autumn and winter.  Snow is rare at low altitudes, but is common on the island's mountaintops in winter.

Ecology

Vancouver Island lies in a temperate rainforest zone.  On the southern and eastern portions of the island, the zone is characterized by Douglas fir, western red cedar, arbutus (or madrone), Garry oak, salal, Oregon    grape, and manzanita.  Some of the tallest Douglas fir have been recorded on Vancouver Island. The northern, western, and most of the central portions of the island are home to the coniferous "big trees" associated with British Columbia's coast - western hemlock, western red cedar, Pacific silver fir, yellow cedar, Douglas fir, grand fir, Sitka spruce, and western white pine.  It is also characterized by bigleaf maple, red alder, sword fern, and red huckleberry.

A rainforest on Vancouver Island.

 

The fauna of Vancouver Island is like that found on the mainland coast, with some notable exceptions and additions. For example, mountain goats, moose, coyotes, porcupines, skunks, chipmunk's, and numerous species of small mammals, while plentiful on the mainland, are absent from Vancouver Island.  Grizzly bears are absent from the island, where black bears are prevalent, but in 2016, a pair of grizzlies were sighted swimming between smaller islands off the coast near Port McNeill.  Vancouver Island does support most of Canada's Roosevelt elk, however, and several mammal species and subspecies, such as the Vancouver Island marmot are unique to the island.  Columbian black-tailed deer are plentiful, even in suburban areas such as in Greater Victoria, as well as the native Douglas squirrels.  The Easter grey squirrel is found in the south and is considered invasive for its voracious appetite and scaring away Douglas squirrels.  The island has the most concentrated population of cougars in North America.  The Vancouver Island Wolf, s subspecies of grey wolf, is found only on the northern part of the island.  Harbor seals and river otters are common.

Resident orcas (also called killer whales) live in two major groups, one in the waters of the southern island and and one in the north, while a third group of transient orcas roam much farther and avoid the resident orcas. Humpback whales and grey whales are often seen on their migration between Alaskan waters where they feed in the summer, and southern waters such around California and Mexico where they give birth in the winter.

Whales in the waters near Vancouver Island.

 

The island's rivers, lakes, and coastal regions are renowned for their fisheries of trout, salmon, and steelhead.

After near-total extermination by fur traders in the 18^th and 19^th centuries, sea otters were reintroduced from 1969 to 1972, and now flourish on the west coast.

On the San Juan Islands, gnarled, ochre-colored madrona trees grace much of the shorelines, while evergreen fir and pine forests cover large inland areas.

Columbia black-tailed deer are the largest mammals on the San Juan Islands.

The San Juan Islands host the greatest concentration of bald eagles (outside of Alaska) in the United States.  Great blue herons, black oystercatchers, and numerous shorebirds are found along the shore, and in winter, the islands are home to trumpeter swans, Canada geese, and other waterfowl.  Peregrine falcons, northern harriers, barred owls, and other birds of prey are found.  In addition, diving birds such as rhinoceros auklets, pigeon guillemots, and endangered marbled murrelets frequent the surrounding seas. 

Indigenous People

Vancouver Island has been the homeland of indigenous peoples for at least 13,800 years. The main groupings, by language, are the Kwakwakaʼwakw, the Nuu-chah-nulth, and various Coast Salish peoples. While there is some overlap, Kwakwakaʼwakw territory included northern and northwestern Vancouver Island and adjoining areas of the mainland, the Nuu-chah-nulth spanned most of the west coast, while the Coast Salish covered the southeastern Island, the southernmost extremities along the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and the San Juan Islands.

Approximate territories and community locations for indigenous groups on Vancouver Island.

  

Their way of life was based on the generous bounty of the earth, and their spiritual culture on the natural world.  Visual manifestation of this rich culture is evidenced in elaborately carved totem poles and beautifully constructed longhouses that grace Vancouver Island.  All three groups of indigenous people built their houses from highly water-resistant cedar beams and hand-split planks. They were very large, anywhere from 50 to 100 feet long.  The houses could hold about 50 people, usually families from the same clan.   

Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw. The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw economy was based primarily on fishing, with the men also engaging in some hunting, and the women gathering wild fruits and berries. 

At the entrance of Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw longhouses, there was usually a totem pole carved with different animals, mythological figures, and family crests. 

Kwakwakaʼwakw arts included totems, masks, textiles, jewelry, and carved objects.  Totem poles ranged up 40 feet tall.   Masks were important in the portrayal of the characters central to Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw dance ceremonies. Woven textiles included blankets, dance aprons, and button cloaks, each patterned with Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw designs.  The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw used a variety of objects for jewelry, including ivory, bone, abalone shell, copper, silver, and more.

Nuu-chah-nulth. Carbon dating shows that the Nuu-chah-nulth peoples hunted whales over 4,000 years ago for both blubber and meat.  They also gathered food from marine environments including halibut, herring, rockfish, and salmon, which were caught along the coast, while along the shoreline other sea inhabitant like clams, sea urchins, and mussels were harvested at low tide.  Salmon streams were tended to ensure their continued strength.  Nuu-chah-nulth nations also gathered food from the land including camas root, rhizomes from ferns, and many different berries such as blueberry and huckleberry.  Some of the Nuu-chah-nulth nations also tended the growth of camas root and Crabapple trees to maintain them as a source of food.  

Roasting fish over an open fire inside an indigenous group’s longhouse.

 

Nuu-chah-nulth nations used the wood and bark of red and yellow cedar trees as both a building material and to produce many different objects.  Artists and wood workers carved full logs into totem poles and ocean-going canoes, and the bark would be torn into strips and softened in water until malleable enough to be woven into baskets, clothing, and ceremonial regalia.  

Coast Salish. Coast Salish people had complex land management practices linked to ecosystem health and resilience.  Forest gardens included crabapple, hazelnut, cranberry, wild plum, and wild cherry species.  There is also documentation of the cultivation of great camas, Indian carrot, and Columbia lily.  Grasslands were maintained to provided game habitat.  Vegetable sprouts, roots, bulbs, berries, and nuts were foraged from the grasslands as well as found wild.  Salmon and other fish were staples. Shellfish were abundant. Butter clams, horse clams, and cockles were dried for trade.  Hunting was specialized; professions were probably sea hunters, land hunters, and fowlers.  Many, many varieties of berries were foraged; some were harvested with comb-like devices not reportedly used elsewhere.

Besides longhouses, many coast Salish groups used pit-houses.  The villages were typically located near navigable water for easy transportation by dugout canoe.  Houses that were part of the same village sometimes stretched for several miles along a river or watercourse.

Within traditional Coast Salish art there were two major forms: the flat design and carving, and basketry and weaving.  Salish-made bowls had different artistic designs and features. Numerous bowls had basic designs with animal features on the surface.

European Exploration and Disputes Over Sovereignty

Europeans began to explore Vancouver Island waters in 1774 when rumors of Russian fur traders caused Spain to send several expeditions to assert its long-held claims to the Pacific Northwest.  The first expedition was under the command of Juan José Pérez Hernández.

Vancouver Island came to the attention of Britain in 1778 when English Captain James Cook arrived at Nootka Sound, midway down the island's western coast, on his expedition in search of the Northwest Passage.  This marked the first recorded landing by Europeans.  Cook claimed it for Great Britain, and spent a month there interacting with the indigenous Nuu-chah-nulth people.

Note:  This first contact by Europeans probably introduced European diseases to the indigenous inhabitants of Vancouver Island - such diseases as smallpox, measles, typhus, and cholera - for which the indigenous people had no immunity, and which would soon decimate the native population. 

In 1788, English maritime fur trader, John Meares set up a trading post at the entrance to Nootka Sound.  The fur trade began expanding into the island, eventually leading to permanent settlement.

In 1789, Spanish navigator and explorer Esteban José Martínez established the settlement of Santa Cruz de Nuca on Nootka Island, just west of Vancouver Island, in Nootka Sound.  At the time Spain was seeking to secure the entire west coast of the continent from Alaska southwards, for the Spanish crown, but the settlement was abandoned in 1795 (see below).  This was to be the only Spanish settlement in what would later be Canada. 

Spanish explorers discovered and named the San Juan Islands in 1791.

In 1792, Spanish explorer Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and his crew were the first Europeans to circumnavigate Vancouver Island.

In the early 1790s, after years of Spanish/English rivalry, the ownership of Vancouver Island remained in dispute between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Spanish Empire.  British naval captain George Vancouver was sent to Nootka Sound in 1792 to negotiate a settlement.  His counterpart was Spanish captain Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra. 

The British and Spanish cooperated on mapping and exploring the coast of Vancouver Island.  A treaty in 1793 gave the two countries joint ownership of the Nootka Sound area, but it was not long after the signing that Spain’s dominance in North America began to wane.  The last Spanish ship was ordered out of the area in 1795, marking the end of the Spanish influence In British Columbia.

British Royal Navy officer George Vancouver explored and charted the coast of Vancouver Island, which is named after him.

 

Originally named “Quadra and Vancouver Island,” the island soon became known as just “Vancouver Island.”

British Settlement

In March 1843, James Douglas of the Hudson's Bay Company and a missionary arrived on Vancouver Island and selected an area for settlement.  Construction of a fort began in June of that year. This settlement was a fur trading post originally named Fort Albert; the trading post was soon renamed Fort Victoria in honor of Queen Victoria.  The fort was located on present-day Victoria's Inner Harbor

Fort Victoria on Vancouver Island.

 In 1846, the Oregon Treaty was signed by the British and the United States to settle the question of the U.S. Oregon Country borders.  The Treaty made the 49^th parallel latitude north the official border between the two countries.  To ensure that Britain retained all of Vancouver Island and the southern Gulf Islands, however, it was agreed that the border would swing south around that area (see map above).

In 1849, Britain established the Colony of Vancouver Island.  The Colony was leased to the Hudson's Bay Company for an annual fee of seven shillings; the company's responsibility in return was to increase the population by promoting colonization.  The first independent settler arrived that year: Captain Walter Grant started a homestead in Sooke, on the southern tip of Vancouver Island. 

The island's first legislative assembly was formed in 1856.  Government buildings were built and were occupied in 1859.

In 1858, the Colony of British Columbia was established on the mainland, partially in response to the discovery of gold on the Thompson River the previous year and the ensuing gold rush, which brought up to fifty thousand gold seekers (mostly Americans from California) to the banks of the Fraser River.

Fort Victoria soon became the port, supply base, and outfitting center for miners on their way to the Fraser Canyon gold fields, mushrooming from a population of 300 to over 5000 within a few days.

Meanwhile, the Hudson's Bay lease expired in 1859, and Vancouver Island reverted to Great Britain. 

Goldrush related activities on the mainland spurred Victoria’s growth.  The burgeoning town was incorporated as Victoria in 1862 and became the capital of the Colony of Vancouver Island.

Canadian Confederation

The economic situation of the Vancouver Island colony declined following another mainland British Columbia gold strike, the Cariboo Gold Rush of 1861–1862, and pressure grew for amalgamation of the island colony with the mainland Colony of British Columbia.  The two colonies were merged in 1866 into the United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia by the Act for the Union of the colonies, passed by the Imperial Parliament of the United Kingdom.  Victoria became the capital immediately, but the legislative assembly was then located in New Westminster on the lower mainland of British Columbia.  The capital was consolidated in Victoria in 1868.

In 1867, Canada was established by the first of the British North America Acts, the Constitution Act, 1867; the United (British Columbia) Colonies joined Canada on 20 July 1871 as the sixth province through the British Columbia Terms of Union.  Decisive factors were the threat of American annexation, embodied by the Alaska Purchase of 1867, and the promise of a railway linking British Columbia to the rest of Canada.   Victoria was named the capital of the province of British Columbia. 

British Columbia, including Vancouver Island, became the 6^th province of Canada in 1871.  The photo above shows the completion of the Canadian continental railroad in 1885, linking British Columbia to the rest of Canada – a primary condition for joining Canada.

 

Growth to Today

In 1886, with the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway terminus into the city of Vancouver on the mainland, Victoria's position as the commercial center of British Columbia was irrevocably lost to the city of Vancouver.

The 20^th century saw significant changes and challenges for Victoria.

The popular Butchart Gardens opened in 1904.

The city's growth was driven by a variety of factors, including the arrival of immigrants from around the world, the development of new industries such as logging, mining, technology, and tourism, and the expansion of transportation networks such as the railway and the steamship.

Two major universities - the University of Victoria, Camosun College, and Royal Roads University - were established.

Victoria is home to Canada's western naval base and a major fishing fleet.  A thriving information technology sector, with annual revenues exceeding four billion dollars, is now one of the area’s largest industries along with marine, forestry, and agricultural research.

Victoria, British Columbia today.

 

Outside of Victoria, Vancouver Island's economy is largely dominated by the forestry industry.  Many of the logging operations are for export.

Commercial fishing vessels operate out of the island's ports and harbors, and coastal fish farms produce many tons of Atlantic salmon yearly.

Consumer food products companies operate in the various cities and towns on Vancouver Island. Bakeries, dairies, food processing plants, breweries, wineries, of varying size and scope, are found all along the island.  Some of these organizations have international customer reach.

Strathcona Provincial Park occupies 847 square miles in the central part of the island, while Pacific Rim National Park (193 square miles) is in three sections along the west coast, and Cape Scott Provincial Park (58 square miles) is at its northwestern tip.

Today, indigenous artwork, masks, and clothing are appreciated internationally for their singular beauty.

Artwork from the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia.

 

In recent years the government of British Columbia has engaged in an advertising program to draw more tourists to beach resorts on Vancouver Island.   Sport fishing, whale watching, hiking, scuba diving, surfing, and skiing are just a few things for which tourists visit Vancouver Island.  Visitors also come to see Victoria's 19^th-century architecture, and the many picturesque villages which line the coast.

The San Juan Islands are an important tourist destination, with sea kayaking and orca whale-watching (by boat or air tours) being two of the primary attractions. 

Small boat cruises (like the one Pat and I are signed up for) to Victoria, the eastern coast of Vancouver Island, and the San Juan Islands are now available.

Pat and I will be looking forward to our small boat cruise to this fascinating region.