HISTORY33 - South America: Part 3 - Independence

This is Part 3 of my history of South America.  Part 1 covered the continent’s geologic evolution through pre-Columbian civilizations.  Part 2 covered European colonization.  Part 3 covers the independence period through today.

My primary resource for this article is TimeMaps at https://www.timemaps.com/history/south-america. Much of what follows was combed from this fabulous website. 

 

South America in 1800, just before independence efforts.

 

In the early 1500s, the Spanish and Portuguese started exploring and colonizing newly discovered South America, and by 1800, ruled over extensive empires.  Also, by 1800, after many failures, the British, the Dutch, and the French had finally established stable colonies in the Guianas on the northcentral coast of South America.

But, late in the 18th century, several factors - economic rigidities in the Spanish colonial system, lack of political freedom, and the example, first of the American Revolution and then of the French Revolution - created a restive climate amongst the educated classes in South America and growing calls for independence.  Armed revolts broke out in various regions from 1810.

Freedom and Fragmentation (1810-1837)

Over the next fifteen years, Spanish colonial presence was driven from all parts of South America, in a process which in some places was marked by no more than a declaration of independence, but in others involved long, hard fighting.

The independence of much of Spanish South America was secured by Simón Bolívar (Venezuela) and José de San Martín (Argentina).  Bolívar led a great uprising in the north, then led his army southward towards Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru.  Meanwhile, San Martín led an army across the Andes Mountains, along with Chilean expatriates, and liberated Chile.  He then organized a fleet to reach Peru by sea, and sought the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru.  The two armies finally met in Guayaquil, Ecuador, where they cornered the Royal Army of the Spanish Crown and forced its surrender.

Simon Bolivar, hero of the South American revolution.

With liberation, the old Spanish Viceroyalty of New Granada became the independent Federation of Gran Colombia, including today’s Central American country of Panama.  Soon, however, regional tensions resulted in the breakup of the federation into the separate countries of Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador (1830).  (Panama would be separated from Columbia in 1903.)

The initial aim of newly freed people in the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata was to become a single independent nation, but continuing the process of political fragmentation, Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay were established as separate countries. 

With independence from Spain won, the challenges facing the new states only just began.  Most countries found it hard to develop a stable government, and descended into chaos, out of which emerged strongmen - caudillos - who took over the government. Their power was seldom secure, however, and they had a tendency to fall victim to new strong men who rose to challenge them.

The independence of Brazil came in a dramatically different way from that of the Spanish colonies - not through armed struggle, but through a separation of one branch of the Portuguese royal family from the other.  Dom Pedro I, son of the Portuguese King proclaimed the independent Kingdom of Brazil in 1822.  Independence was diplomatically accepted by the crown in Portugal in 1825, and the kingdom became the Empire of Brazil.  The independent country of Uruguay was established from Brazil as a buffer zone between Brazil and Argentina.

Slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire in 1834, and the ex-slaves in British Guiana established their own communities along the coast. To replace the freed slaves, the British brought in workers form their colonies in Eastern Asia, particularly India.

Map of South America in 1837, showing the 10 newly independent countries, three remaining European colonies, and the undeveloped southern tip of the continent.

Political Instability (1837-1871)

Most South American countries were unable to achieve political stability, and were ruled by a succession of caudillos.  In many places, this instability was compounded by strife between liberal and conservative factions.  Most South American governments failed to solve problems of economic stagnation and chronic poverty.

Paraguay became embroiled in a war from 18645-1870 with its giant neighbours, Brazil and Argentina, together with Uruguay.  Paraguay was utterly ruined, a third of its population dead.  Uruguay lost its northern land-half to Brazil, leaving Brazil as a buffer between Paraguay and Uruguay.  In addition, Uruguay experienced civil wars between liberal commercial interests and conservative landowners.

There were exceptions to this discouraging picture.  Both Chile and Argentina made steady economic progress, and both experienced large-scale immigration from Europe.  Extensive railroad and road networks were developed.  Argentina engaged in wars against the indigenous peoples in the Pampas region (grasslands) to set up large-scale cattle ranching on huge estates.  In the 1860s, Chile and Argentina began an aggressive expansion to the south, increasing confrontation with indigenous peoples.

Along the Pacific coast of Peru, Bolivia, and northern Chile, a highly profitable nitrate industry was established, but controlled by foreign corporations - British, and North Americans.  In the highlands, too, the traditional silver mining industry was revived by foreign (mainly British) investments.

In Brazil, Emperor Pedro II ruled from the age of five when his father suddenly abdicated the throne in 1831.  Under Pedro, the country had political stability.  The economy greatly expanded, and thousands of miles of railroad were laid down.  In the political sphere, democratic institutions, such as a free press and parliamentary government, developed.

Dom Pedro II ruled over a prosperous Brazil for over 58 years in the 19th century.

 

In the Guianas, the French followed the British in abolishing slavery in 1848.  Many of the ex-slaves then migrated inland to form free communities.  A few years later, French Guiana began its infamous history as the dumping-ground for France’s worst criminals in 1854. The Dutch ended slavery in 1863; both the French and the Dutch followed the British example of bringing in workers from their colonies in Eastern Asia to replace the slaves.

Factional Strife to Democratic Movements (1871-1914)

Military dictatorships, factional strife, and growing inequality all hampered South American countries from fulfilling their potential.  However, there were some moves towards democracy.  And this same time period saw strong economic expansion in several countries.

Panama, hitherto the northern province of Colombia, seceded with U.S. help in 1903.  The last few years of this period saw Colombia’s economy expand, thanks largely to the rise of its coffee-growing industry.  In Venezuela, the rise of the oil industry began to bring prosperity to the country.

In Chile, a nitrate mining boom exacerbated border disputes, leading to the War of the Pacific from 1879-1883, between Chile on the one hand, and Peru and Bolivia on the other.  Chile won the war and extended her territories, depriving Bolivia of any coastal territory, a devastating blow to the country, and also eating into Peru’s coastal area.  Peru and Bolivia were left almost bankrupt, and this, plus the national humiliation of defeat, undermined the credibility of their military governments.  Eventually this led to democratic regimes coming to power in both countries; these presided over periods of political stability, foreign (mainly U.S.) investment, and economic recovery.

The development of steamships and refrigeration opened up European markets to the cattle ranchers of the Argentine Pampas.  Argentina in particular continued to attract mass immigration: over two million Italians, Spaniards and other Europeans (including a Welsh colony) settled in the country to participate in its new prosperity.  Argentina was governed by civilian politicians drawn from a narrow political elite, but the introduction of universal suffrage in 1912, paved the way for greater democracy. 

Paraguay slowly reconstructed itself after the devastating war with Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. Paraguay was dominated by a factional struggle between two groups of politicians, liberals and conservatives.  

Thanks to the enlightened rule of Jose Batlle, Uruguay turned towards democracy and an ongoing commitment to social equality.  This laid the foundations for decades of political stability and economic and social progress.

Under the enlightened leadership of Jose Batlle, Uruguay turned to democracy in the early 20th century.

 

Chile and Argentina solidified their hold of the Patagonia region to the south - reaching all the way to the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego, off the southernmost tip of the South American mainland, across the Strait of Magellan.  The two countries signed the Border Treaty of 1881 that divided the new lands between them.

The late nineteenth century was a period of strong economic expansion for Brazil, which found itself drawn more and more into world markets and received massive investment from Europe and, later, the U.S.  

The economic expansion led to the rise of a new middle class, which did not support the monarchical system of government of the emperor, Pedro II.  Moreover, the abolition of slavery in 1888 was fiercely opposed by the plantation owners, and lost Pedro their support. He therefore abdicated the following year, 1889, leaving as a legacy a country that had a far higher level of economic and political stability then most South American states of the period.

Brazil was the last country in the Western world to abolish slavery. By the time it was abolished, on May 13, 1888, an estimated four million slaves had been imported/taken from Africa to Brazil, 40% of the total number of slaves brought to the Americas.

Brazil became a federal republic in 1891, adopting a constitution modelled on that of the United States. Government was in the hands of politicians who represented a narrow group of rural landowners, who were nevertheless intent of modernizing the country.

A small gold rush in British Guiana led to some immigration, and a measure of development for the hitherto undeveloped northwest. The inhabitants of the colony were given a small measure of self-government, electing their own officials.

South America in 1914, showing where Chile extended its borders, the expansion of Brazil between Paraguay and Uruguay, and Chile-Argentina control of the Patagonia region to Tierra del Fuego in the south.

 

Boom, Bust and Revolution (1914-1960)

Most South American countries remained neutral during World War I, and played little part in World War II.  The immediate post-World War I period was generally a boom time, with the demand for consumer goods in Europe and America fueling exports.  The sharp economic downturn of the 1930s hit South American countries hard.

In Colombia, a long period of comparative stability and economic expansion came to an abrupt end with the Great Depression of the 1930s.  Tensions between liberals and conservatives spilled over into civil war, and in the late 1940s and early 1950s, a period known as “The Violence” claimed as many as 300,000 lives.  This terrible period was ended by a military coup in 1954, with democracy returning in 1957.

Venezuela experienced dramatic economic growth with the oil boom of the 1940s and 1950s.  After mostly dictatorial rule, in 1958, democracy at last came to the country, and endured (more or less) to the present day.

In Peru, in 1930, a military coup in the wake of the Wall Street Crash ended years of civilian government.  The military government was unstable, and full-scale political persecution, was the rule.

In Bolivia, defeat in the Chaco War with Paraguay from 1932-1935, over potentially oil-rich land, led to political instability, with military rule alternating with civilian rule. This culminated in the so-called Bolivian National Revolution of 1952-1964, which resulted in a general improvement in the condition of the majority indigenous population.

Ecuador continued to experience chronic political instability, the result of extremes of wealth and poverty. This undermined the country’s ability to defend her borders effectively, and she lost a large slice of Amazon territory to her neighbor, Peru.

In Chile, the demand for country’s chief export, nitrate, rose greatly with the coming of the World War I, but advances during the war led to the development of synthetic nitrates.  Chilean exports plummeted, putting the Chilean economy into depression. The resulting social unrest and the polarization of Chilean politics between conservatives and socialists made political stability hard to achieve - and the Great Depression made things worse.  Short-lived governments followed, oscillating between conservatives, supported by the old landed elite, and socialists, supported by the discontented and radicalized middle and working classes.  Governments were never strong enough to grapple effectively with the country’s economic problems, and high inflation and austerity programs were the order of the day.  With World War II, and then the Cold War, the economic situation improved markedly for Chile, as demand for its metals and other products rose.  Nevertheless, social inequalities continued to blight the country.

In Argentina, after years of economic expansion, disillusionment with politicians during the Great Depression led to a military coup in 1930.  In 1946, Colonel Juan Peron was elected president, aided by the popular support given to his charismatic wife, Eva.  Peron nationalized the railways and other major industries, and sought to make Argentina economically self-sufficient.  His wife, Eva, championed the poor, and won widespread devotion from the working classes.  Re-elected in 1951 with a landslide victory, Peron’s power did not long outlive the death of his wife in 1952.  Big business and the army turned against him, and he was overthrown in 1955.  A series of military governments followed.

Argentina president Juan Peron and his wife Eva, 1950.

Paraguay remained backward and inward looking under its dictators.

Uruguay, meanwhile, was a beacon of political stability, economic progress, and social justice until the 1950s.  From the mid-1950s on, however, it experienced a period of economic stagnation.

In Brazil, a revolution brought Getulio Vargas to power as dictator in 1930. His dictatorship was comparatively tolerant of the peoples’ freedoms, and he presided over a period of economic recovery, despite the sharp economic downturn of the early 1930s.   Brazil developed a larger home-grown industrial base than ever before.  After democracy was restored in 1946, Vargas was elected President by free vote in 1951.  His chaotic handling of government, however, led to his second abdication in 1954.  In 1960, Juscelino Kubitschek, became president and pursued modernizing economic policies.  Also, in 1960, Brasilia became the new capital of Brazil.

During this period, the inhabitants of both British and Dutch Guiana gained more self-government. French Guiana became an overseas department of France in 1946.  The terrible prisons of French Guiana were closed in 1954.

Military Dictatorships and Economic Problems (1960-2005)

Depressed prices for many of South America’s exports in the 1960s and 1970s led to economic and political problems.  U.S-aligned military dictatorships seized power in several countries.  To curtail opposition, military governments detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured and/or killed.  In the following decade, however, the tide turned and, despite continuing economic volatility, democratic government was restored in several countries.  Economic reforms in some countries led to significant and enduring economic gains.  The countries which missed out on prosperity most dramatically were those experiencing widespread terrorist activity.

From the late 1960s, Colombia was plagued by guerilla warfare and then a brutal civil war between the government and drug cartels.  Colombia’s deep-seated economic and social problems remained unsolved.

A succession of democratically elected governments tried to spread Venezuela’s oil wealth throughout society.  The huge national debts this incurred caused an economic crisis in the 1980s, and drugs-related criminal charges against senior politicians led to the rise to power of populist Hugo Chavez in 1998. Chavez pursued a socialist agenda at home and an anti-U.S. agenda abroad.

In Peru, military governments were unable to deal effectively with the grave social inequalities in the country, and this failure fueled growing terrorist movements.  A return to democracy in 1980, and the vigorous presidency of Alberto Fujimori from 1990-2000, brought, first, victory over the terrorists and, then, economic progress.  

Ecuador’s economic downturn in the 1950s and 1960s led to a rise of terrorist movements until, in 1984, the country returned to democracy. The emergence of the indigenous population as an active constituency added to the democratic volatility of Ecuador.  The population was motivated by government failures to deliver on promises of land reform, lower unemployment and provision of social services, and historical exploitation by the land-holding elite. Their movement, along with the continuing destabilizing efforts by both the elite and leftist movements, led to a deterioration of presidential power.

Bolivia saw short-lived military governments, hyperinflation, and a growing reliance upon cocaine exports to bolster the economy.  Finally, in 1985, an elected civilian government introduced stern economic retrenchment, which led to political stability, economic recovery, and success against the drugs trade.

In Chile, in 1964, reformist Eduardo Frei became president, and introduced a wide range of reforms to tackle the country’s social problems.  His efforts were only partially successful, and succeeded in radicalizing Chilean politics still further.  In 1970, Chile elected communist Salvadore Allende as president.  He embarked on an ambitious nationalization program, which brought economic chaos to the country.  Alarmed by this, the army intervened, and carried out a bloody purge of Allende’s supporters.  The military dictatorship which followed in 1973, under the leadership of General Augusto Pinochet, was oppressive.  Military rule lasted until 1988, during which time horrendous abuses of human rights were perpetrated.  Chile was then governed by a succession of democratically elected governments that largely maintained the free-market economic policies of the Pinochet regime, and the country experienced steady economic progress, as well as real social gains.

Military dictatorships were unable to solve Argentina’s economic problems.  Finally, in 1973, Peron’s supporters won power and Peron returned to the country as President.  He died the following year, to be succeeded in power by his third wife, Isabel.  She was unable to deal with the hyper-inflation, and was ousted by the armed forces in 1976. The new military regime killed or imprisoned thousands of its opponents, especially its left-wing critics, and then blundered into a humiliating war with Britain over the Falkland Islands in 1982.  This defeat led to the return of civilian government.  However, successive civilian governments were unable to cure Argentina’s economic ills, leading to a virtual meltdown of the economy in December 2001.  Nevertheless, there was no return to military rule, and since 2002 the country saw a steady economic recovery.

Stable and prosperous Uruguay suffered an economic crisis as its agricultural exports fell in price.  This triggered social and political conflict, including guerilla activity, and in 1973 the army stepped in to take control of the government.  Democracy was restored eleven years later in 1984.  After that, Uruguay experienced cycles of economic growth and decline, but remained politically stable and wedded to democracy.

Paraguay was ruled by the dictator Alfredo Stroessner, who presided over a period of economic progress until he was toppled in a bloody military coup in 1989.  The country became a democracy in 1993 - for the first time in its history.  Paraguay then experienced periods of economic expansion and decline, tied largely to fluctuations in the price of its commodity exports.

In Brazil, in 1964, the military took power, on the grounds of the mishandling of the economy by the civilian politicians.  This ushered in two decades of fairly tolerant military rule, ending in a return to civilian government in 1985.  Brazil was then run along democratic lines, despite periods of hyper-inflation and economic crisis, which Brazil brought under control under the presidency of President Henrique Cardoso from 1995-2002.  Nevertheless, Brazil remained an extremely unequal society, and this helped bring the socialist Lula de Silva to the presidency in 2002.  Under de Silva, a combination of shrewd economic policies and some of the most effective anti-poverty measures in the world, made Brazilian society more prosperous and more equal.

Socialist Lula de Silva, president of Brazil from 2002-2010, introduced sweeping social programs to combat poverty and help the country's working class.

 

British Guiana achieved independence, as Guyana, in 1966, and Dutch Guiana became independent in 1975, being renamed Suriname. After initial problems, both countries were governed along democratic lines.  French Guiana was boosted by the establishment of the European Space Agency launch site there in 1975.

Political Shift to the Left (2005-present)

South American governments drifted to the political left, with socialist leaders and leftist presidents being elected in many countries.  Authoritarian leaders drew comparison to South American dictators and caudillos of the past.  Political instability, government corruption, violent protests, and high murder rates plagued several countries.  Despite the tendency to move to the left of the political spectrum, most of South America's governments embrace free-market capitalism.  In 2010, South American economies recovered from recession and grew faster than any region other than China.  China emerged as South America’s most significant investment source and trading partner. 

Columbia continued its ongoing battle with the FARC anti-government guerilla group and finally signed a peace deal in 2016, that ended a 50-year war that killed 200,000 people.  President Juan Manuel Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for this achievement.  Since 2013, cocaine production in Columbia, the world’s biggest cocaine producer, has been steadily increasing.  By 2015, Columbia’s economy had grown for the 15^th consecutive year.  In 2019-2020, there were country-wide protests against inequality, police brutality, and corruption.

In Venezuela, President Hugo Chavez died in office in 2013, and Nicolas Maduro, in the face of increasing poverty and inflation, was elected president.  In 2014, hundreds of thousands of Venezuelans protested over high levels of criminal violence, corruption, hyperinflation, and chronic scarcity of basic goods.  The price of oil plummeted, placing great pressure on the Venezuelan economy.  In 2015, Venezuela’s inflation rate was 181%.  The rate reached 800% in 2016, over 4,000% in 2017, and about 1,700,000% in 2018, with Venezuela spiraling into hyperinflation.  In 2017, the U.S. imposed economic sanctions against Venezuela's state-owned oil company and Venezuelan officials for crime and corruption, and in 2019, the U.S. imposed a total economic embargo against Venezuela.  In March 2020, the U.S. indicted Maduro and several Venezuelan officials on charges of drug trafficking.  Under Maduro's administration, more than 9,000 people have been subject to extrajudicial killings and more than four million Venezuelans have fled the country.  On 23 January 2019, Juan Guaidó, president of Venezuela’s National Assembly, declared himself President of Venezuela, and as of the end of 2020, the leadership issue is unresolved. 

Nicolas Maduro refuses to relinquish the presidency of Venezuela in the face of censure by his country's National Assembly.

 

From 2005-2020, Peru was governed by a succession of leftist and then centrist presidents, who found themselves embroiled in scandal after scandal involving the use of public funds.  Peru’s economy grew almost 7% per year from 2003-2011, and in 2007, the U.S. and Peru signed a free-trade treaty.  But by 2014, a decline in demand for industrial and precious metals, slowed Peru’s overall economy considerably.  Social inequalities remain a key issue.

Ecuador was led by two social democratic presidents during this period.  A new constitution was approved in 2008.  After growing at an average rate of about four percent per year between 2006 and 2014, GDP in Ecuador bottomed out in 2015 because of falling world oil prices.   A magnitude-7.8 earthquake shook the Pacific coast of Ecuador on April 16, 2016, and caused widespread destruction and hundreds of deaths in the northwestern part of the country.  In March 2019, the International Monetary Fund finalized a $4.2 billion loan for Ecuador that would support the government’s economic policies over the next three years.  That agreement was predicated on the contingency that Ecuador adopt austerity measures to bring stability to the country’s finances.

In 2005, in Bolivia, Evo Morales became the first indigenous president of a South American country. He focused on the implementation of leftist policies and combating the influence of the United States and multinational corporations.  His administration instituted a new constitution in 2009.  Morales increased taxation on the hydrocarbon industry to bolster social spending and emphasized projects to combat illiteracy, poverty, racism, and sexism.  Morales' government moved Bolivia towards a mixed economy, reduced its dependence on the World Bank and International Monetary Fund and oversaw strong economic growth.  Scaling back United States influence in the country, he built relationships with leftist governments - especially Hugo Chávez's Venezuela and Fidel Castro's Cuba.  

In Chile, governments changed frequently from socialist to rightist during this period, but sustained one of South America’s most stable and prosperous economies.  On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by a magnitude-8.8 earthquake, the fifth largest ever recorded at the time.  More than 500 people died (most from the ensuing tsunami) and over a million people lost their homes.  In 2019-2020, there were a series of country-wide protests in response to the increased cost of living, privatization and inequality prevalent in the country.   In late 2020, Chileans voted overwhelmingly to create a new constitution, replacing the current constitution from Augusto Pinochet’s regime in the 1980s.

Argentina achieved significant fiscal and trade surpluses, and steep GDP growth during the early part of this period, but by 2015, the country was experiencing a weak economy with one of the highest inflation rates in its history.  Since then, Argentina has managed a tepid economic recovery, but inflation rates remain high.  Argentina has sought good foreign relations with countries with questionable human rights records, including Venezuela, Iran and Cuba, while at the same time relations with the United States and United Kingdom remain heavily strained.

In Paraguay, after 60 years of right-wing rule, in 2008, voters elected president Fernando Lugo, a former Roman Catholic Bishop, and not a professional politician.  This was the first time in the history of the nation that a government had transferred power to opposition forces in a constitutional and peaceful fashion.  But political instability followed Lugo's election and he was impeached in 2013, to be followed by two presidents from the conservative party.

In Uruguay, in 2005, Tabaré Vázquez, a physician and a leftist, was elected president.  He was followed in 2009 by José Mujica, a former left-wing guerrilla leader who spent almost 15 years in prison during the country's military rule.  Abortion was legalized in 2012, followed by same-sex marriage and cannabis (first country in the world) in 2013.  In 2014, Vázquez was elected to a second non-consecutive term as president.  He was succeeded in 2020 by Luis Alberto Lacalle Pou, from the center-right party.

Brazil’s government politics changed from traditional left wing to centrist in 2016, then conservative in 2019, with government corruption plaguing all administrations.  There was some decline in poverty, but inequality and public services remain key issues.  In 2007, large oil reserves were discovered in Brazil. China became Brazil’s largest trading partner in 2009.   Brazil’s economy grew to reach the seventh largest in the world in 2015, after which a recession has plagued the country.  Brazil has also been plagued with violence, including gang violence, thousands of murders annually, and police killings.

In Guyana, the legacy of British rule was reflected in the country's political administration and diverse population, which includes Indian, African, indigenous, Chinese, Portuguese, other European, and various multiracial groups.  In 2017, 41% of the population of Guyana lived below the poverty line. Guyana is the only South American nation in which English is the official language.

The British territory of the Falklands diversified from a sheep-based economy into an economy of tourism and fisheries. The road network was made more extensive and oil exploration began.

Suriname is the smallest country in South America, yet its population is one of the most ethnically diverse in the region.  Its economy has been dependent on its extensive supply of natural resources (see below).  

In French Guiana, in 2010, the people voted against autonomy.  However, in 2017, workers began strikes and demonstrations for more resources and infrastructure.

South America Today

South America today consists of 12 independent countries and two territories, French Guiana and the British Falkland Islands.  All countries are democracies, organized as a unitary, federal, or presidential republic.  The map below shows these countries and territories, including their capital cities.

South America today.

The table below lists the independence dates, size, and economic characteristics of South American countries and territories.  The International Monetary Fund estimate for 2020 of the economic productivity of each country is shown, using the Gross Domestic Product, based on purchasing power parity, GDP(PPP), that takes into account the relative costs of local goods, services, and inflation rates. Brazil ranks 8^th in the world by this measure and is by far the largest, most populated, and economically strongest country in South America. 

 

                        Today’s countries and territories in South America (in alphabetical order).

Country or Territory	Year of Independence	Size  (sq. mi.)	Population    (est. Oct 2020)	Exports	GDP (PPP)(2020 est.)
Argentina	1816              (from Spain)	1,070 M	45.3 M	Wheat, corn, flax, oats, beef, mutton, hides, wool	$925 B
Bolivia	1826               (from Spain)	424 K	11.7 M	Petroleum gas, zinc ore, gold, soybean meal, precious metal ore	$98 B
Brazil	1822              (from Portugal)	3,290 M	213 M	Coffee, transport equipment, iron ore, soybeans, footwear, motor vehicles, orange juice, beef, tropical hardwoods	$3,080 B
Chile	1818              (from Spain)	292 K	19.2 M	Copper, sulfate chemical wood pulp, fish fillets	$456 B
Colombia	1819              (from Spain)	440 K	51.2 M	Oil, coffee, petroleum products, coal, nickel, emeralds, apparel, bananas, cut flowers	$719 B
Ecuador	1822              (from Spain)	109 K	17.8 M	Petroleum, bananas, crustaceans, processed fish	$186 B
Falkland Islands (UK)	NA	4,700	3,570	Wool, hides, meat, squid	NA
French Guiana (France)	NA	35 K	292 K	Satellites, shrimp, timber gold, rum, rosewood essence, clothing	NA
Guyana	1966                 (from UK)	83 K	788 K	Sugar, gold, bauxite, rice, shrimp, rum	$14 B
Paraguay	1811               (from Spain)	157 K	7.16 M	Soybeans, bovine meat	$91 B
Peru	1824              (from Spain)	496 K	33.2 M	Copper, gold, zinc, petroleum, coffee, potatoes, asparagus, textiles, guinea pigs	$386 B
Suriname	1975          (from Netherlands)	63 K	588 K	Gold, precious metal scraps, petroleum, rough wood, bananas	$9 B
Uruguay	1828              (from Brazil)	68 K	3.48 M	Sulfate chemical wood pulp, bovine meat, milk, rice	$75 B
Venezuela	1811               (from Spain)	352 K	28.0 M	Petroleum, gold, alcohols, iron ore	$204 B    (2019)

 

South Americans are culturally enriched by the historic connection with Europe, especially Spain, and the impact of mass culture from the U.S.

South American nations have a rich variety of music.  Some of the most famous genres include cumbia from Colombia, samba and bossa nova from Brazil, and tango from Argentina and Uruguay.

Because of South America's broad ethnic mix, South American cuisine takes on African, indigenous, Asian and European influences.   Rice and beans is an extremely popular dish, considered a basic staple in many South American countries.

Argentineans, Chileans, and Uruguayans regularly consume wine, while Argentina, along with Paraguay, Uruguay and people in southern Chile and Brazil enjoy a sip of Mate, a regional brewed herb cultivated for its drink.  Pisco is a liquor distilled from grapevine produced in Peru and Chile.  Peruvian cuisine mixes elements from Chinese, Japanese, Spanish, Inca, and Amazon food.

Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion of the region as a whole; however, Protestantism is growing steadily.  Guyana and Suriname have significant Hindu, and Muslim communities.  Jewish communities are found across South America. The largest are in São Paulo, Brazil; Buenos Aires, Argentina; and Montevideo, Uruguay. There are also significant numbers of Eastern Orthodox churches founded by immigrants from the Middle East.

The U.S. Office of the Director of National Intelligence for South America forecasts that In the next five years, South America will see more frequent changes in governments as a result of public dissatisfaction over economic mismanagement, widespread corruption, weak economic performance due to softer Chinese demand for commodities, and social stresses associated with new entrants to the middle class and the working poor.  These conditions will also jeopardize South America’s significant progress against poverty and inequality of the previous 20 years.

I guess time will tell.