HISTORY21 - Spanish Conquest of Mesoamerica

This article is the about the history of the Spanish Conquest of Mesoamerica, lands on the isthmus joining North and South America, between 10-22 degrees north latitude, through the Spanish Conquest period from 1519 to 1697.

This blog is a follow-on to my last posted blog, the History of Ancient Mesoamerica, which presented the history of six advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, including the Aztec and Maya, whose conquest by the Spanish is described below.

The Spanish established the first permanent settlement in the New World on the island of Hispaniola (in the Greater Antilles) in 1493 on the second voyage of Christopher Columbus.  Over the next 25 years, there were further explorations and settlements on islands in the Caribbean Sea and explorations along the North and South American mainland, including a number of visits to the coast of the Yucatán peninsula.  The Spanish were seeking wealth in the form of gold and access to indigenous labor to mine gold and to perform other manual tasks. 

Fresh from explorations of the Yucatán coast, in April 1519, Spanish Conquistador Hernán Cortés landed on the coast of the modern-day Mexican state of Veracruz, determined to conquer the indigenous Aztecs and reap the spoils of their magnificent capital of Tenochtitlán.  The Aztec civilization was at the peak of its power, with an empire extending over central Mexico and south to the Pacific coast of Guatemala.

The map below shows the extent of the Aztec Empire.

The Aztec Empire just before the start of the Spanish Conquest.

To the northwest from the Aztecs were the Michoacan people and the Chichimecas.  Immediately to the east of the Aztec Empire, were the Chiappan peoples and the indigenous Maya civilization that had survived and prospered for more than 2,500 years, occupying eastern Mexico, the Yucatán peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador - a territory that covered a third of Mesoamerica. 

Elements of the Spanish Conquest of Mesoamerica

Before getting started on the timeline of the Spanish Conquest, I want to address some critical issues that greatly affected the Conquest and subsequent Colonial Period.

Weapons and Tactics.  

Spanish.  Weaponry and tactics for the Spanish differed greatly from that of the indigenous peoples. This included the Spanish use of steel swords, crossbows, firearms (including muskets and cannon), lances, pikes, rapiers, halberds (two-handed pole weapons), war dogs, and war horses.  Horses had never been encountered by Mesoamericans before, and their use gave the mounted conquistador an overwhelming advantage over his unmounted opponent, allowing the rider to strike with greater force while simultaneously making him less vulnerable to attack. The mounted conquistador was highly maneuverable and this allowed groups of combatants to quickly disperse themselves across the battlefield. The horse itself was not passive, and could buffet the enemy combatant.

The use of steel swords (one- and two-handed broadswords) was perhaps the greatest technological advantage held by the Spanish. 

The conquistadors applied a more effective military organization and strategic awareness than their opponents, allowing them to deploy troops and supplies in a way that increased the Spanish advantage.

The Spanish routinely employed indigenous allies, either opponents of whomever they were trying to conquer, or captives from previous conquests.  It is estimated that for every Spaniard on the field of battle, there were at least 10 native auxiliaries, and the participation of these Mesoamerican allies was decisive.  

Spanish Conquistadors received their charters, defining the scope of particular conquest missions, along with any restrictions, from the King of Spain, local Governors in the Caribbean, or later, from authorities in Mexico City.  Individual Conquistadors were very competitive, looking to gain riches and power.  They sometimes ignored their “orders” and defined their own missions, often having to justify them to authorities after the fact.  In some cases, Spanish Conquest forces actually fought each other to settle differences in objectives.

Indigenous Civilizations. The indigenous people of Mesoamerica lacked key elements of Old World technology, such as the use of iron and steel, and functional wheels.

Mesoamerican “armies” were highly disciplined, and warriors participated in regular training exercises and drills; every able-bodied adult male was available for military service. Most warriors were not full-time, however, and were primarily farmers; the needs of their crops usually came before warfare.

Mesoamerican warfare was not so much aimed at destruction of the enemy as the seizure of captives and plunder.  Indigenous warriors battled against the Spanish with flint-tipped spears, bows and arrows, and stones. They also employed two-handed swords crafted from strong wood, with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian.  They wore padded cotton armor (that had been soaked in salt water to toughen it) to protect themselves.  (The Spanish were sufficiently impressed by the quilted cotton armor of their opponents that they eventually adopted it in preference to their own steel armor.)  Warriors bore wooden or animal hide shields decorated with feathers and animal skins.  Some highland Mesoamerican peoples had historically employed ambush and raiding as their preferred tactic, and its employment against the Spanish proved troublesome for the Europeans.  In response to the use of cavalry, the highland peoples sometimes took to digging pits on the roads, lining them with fire-hardened stakes, and camouflaging them with grass and weeds, a tactic that killed many horses.

European Diseases.  Epidemics accidentally introduced by the Spanish included smallpox, measles, and influenza. These diseases, together with typhus and yellow fever, had a major impact on indigenous populations that had no resistance to them, and were a deciding factor in the conquest. The Old World diseases decimated populations before battles were even fought.  It is estimated that 90% of the indigenous population of Mesoamerica had been eliminated by disease within the first century of European contact.

Religion.  During the conquest, the Spanish pursued a dual policy of military conquest, bringing indigenous peoples and territory under Spanish control, and spiritual conquest, that is, conversion of indigenous peoples to Christianity.

The first Franciscan missionaries to Mesoamerica, sent by the King of Spain at Hernán Cortés request, arrived in Mexico in 1523 and 1524.  By 1559 there were 300 Franciscan friars at 80 missions throughout the conquered areas.  The Franciscans concentrated on the densest and most central communities and built churches, often on the same sacred ground as Mesoamerican temples.  They targeted native elites as key converts, who would set the precedent for the commoners in communities to convert.

Since it was customary for Mesoamerican cultures to adopt the religion of conquering tribes, the natives were not naturally inclined to resist conversion to Christianity. 

Although their chief goal was to perform the sacraments and introduce the natives to the fundamentals of Roman Catholic doctrine, in many respects the missionary friars laid the groundwork for the fusion of the Spanish and Mexican cultures. They won the trust of the native population by protecting them from the excesses to which many of the Spanish civilians were inclined. They also took responsibility for the basic education of the natives, an effort greatly enhanced by their assiduous study of native languages. They established schools where youngsters learned to read and write and were introduced to European music and the arts.  Adults were trained to practice agriculture and trades, learning European methods in masonry, carpentry, iron work, weaving, dying, and ceramics.

Timeline of the Spanish Conquest of Mesoamerica

Now let’s talk about the timeline of the Spanish Conquest period, starting from 1519 with the Aztec Empire, then extending to the Michoacan people, the Chichimecas, the Chiappan peoples, and the Maya civilization - in the order of completing the conquest of the region.  I’ll spend a lot more time and detail on the conquest of the Aztecs, compared to the other civilizations, because of its overall importance to the conquest of Mesoamerica.

Central Mexico (1519-1524):  Aztec Empire.  By the early 16^th century, the Aztecs had come to dominate central Mexico, and ruled up to 500 small states, and some five to six million people, either by conquest or commerce.  The Aztec Empire extended from central Mexico, far south to today’s Mexican state of Chiapas and Guatemala, and spanning from the Pacific to the Atlantic Oceans.

The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, was founded on an islet in Lake Texcoco, the inland lake system of the Valley of Mexico, grew to cover about five square miles, with an estimated 200,000 inhabitants.  The city was connected to the mainland by bridges and causeways, and interlaced with a series of canals, so that all sections of the city could be visited either on foot or via canoe.  Two aqueducts, each more than two and a half miles long, provided the city with fresh water from springs on the mainland. 

The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, was built on an islet in Lake Texcoco.

In the center of the city were hundreds of buildings, including public buildings, temples, and palaces.  Inside a walled square, 1,640 feet on a side, was the ceremonial center, including the 200-feet high Templo Mayor pyramid, dedicated to the Aztec patron deity (god of war, sun, and human sacrifice), Huitzilopochtli, and the Rain God, Tlaloc; the temple of Quetzalcoatl, a ball-game court; the Sun Temple; a building dedicated to warriors and the ancient power of rulers; platforms for gladiatorial sacrifice; and other minor temples.

On April 21, 1519, at the height of the Aztec civilization, Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernán Cortés, landed an expeditionary force of about 600 men on today’s Gulf Coast site of Veracruz, about 200 miles from Tenochtitlán.  Cortés was welcomed by representatives of the Aztec Emperor, Moctezuma II, bearing lavish gifts of gold and cloth and who attempted to dissuade Cortés from visiting Tenochtitlán.  But the lavish gifts and polite welcoming only encouraged Cortés on his quest towards the Aztec capital.

Over the next few months, Cortés persuaded local indigenous settlements to rebel against the Aztecs.  His new allies helped Cortés establish a Spanish settlement at Villa Rica, a few miles north of Veracruz along the Gulf Coast, that would become his starting point for his attempt to conquer the Aztec Empire.

In mid-August, the Spaniards and their new allies started the march towards Tenochtitlán.  In early September, Cortés arrived at Tlaxcala, a confederacy of about 200 towns and different tribes, who were hold-out enemies of Tenochtitlán.  After a series of battles, Cortés persuaded the Tlaxcalans to join his forces to fight against their enemies at Tenochtitlán.  Cortes stayed in Tlaxcala about three weeks, giving his men time to recover from their wounds from the battles.

Cortes' route from the Gulf Coast to the Aztec capital at Tenochtitlan.

In October, Cortés and his Tlaxcalan allies than proceeded to the large indigenous city of Cholula, an Aztec religious stronghold, where for uncertain reasons, the Spanish forces and Cholulans got into fight that resulted in the “Massacre of Cholula,” where Cortés’ army killed thousands of people and burned the city. 

The massacre had a chilling effect on other city-states and groups affiliated with the Aztecs.  In addition to Tlaxcala, Cortés made additional alliances with tributary states of the Aztec Empire, as well as political rivals, including Texcoco and other city-states bordering Lake Texcoco

On November 8, 1519, after months of battles and negotiations to overcome the diplomatic resistance of the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma II to his visit, Cortés and his forces entered Tenochtitlán.  Cortés was greeted by Moctezuma II, after which he took up residence in the Aztec capital with fellow Spaniards and indigenous allies.  Believing that the Spaniards were the return of characters from Aztec legend, and destined to rule these lands, Moctezuma II pledged his loyalty to the King of Spain and accepted Cortés as the King’s representative.

Painting of Cortes meeting Moctezuma II in Tenochtitlan.

In mid-November 1519, Aztecs killed seven Spanish soldiers that Cortés had left on the coast.   After that, Moctezuma II was held as Cortés’ prisoner against any further resistance.  The Emperor was made to pay a tribute to the Spanish King, which included a treasure of gold objects and jewels.  Moctezuma II continued to act as Emperor, subject to Cortés’ overall control.

In April 1520, a large second Spanish force landed on the Gulf Coast, sent by the Governor of Cuba to reign in Cortés’ conquest efforts that the Governor thought exceeded his authority.  Cortés left Tenochtitlán and hurried east with forces to combat the newcomer Spaniards.  He surprised his antagonists with a night attack, defeated them, and convinced the defeated Spaniards to join him in his quest, promising to make them rich. 

Cortés returned to Tenochtitlán to find that the headstrong soldier he had left in charge to guard Moctezuma II, Pedro de Alvarado, had attacked and killed many of the Aztec nobility during a religious festival.  The population of the city revolted and fierce fighting ensued.   In early July, the Spaniards and their allies started a retreat across the causeways to the mainland.  The retreat quickly turned into a rout and much of the wealth that the Spaniards had acquired in Tenochtitlán was lost. The Spaniards and native allies suffered heavy casualties.  The Emperor Moctezuma II was killed in the Spanish fighting retreat, along with his son and two daughters, and several Aztec noblemen loyal to Cortés.  

In mid-September, Cuitlahuac, younger brother of Montezuma II was elected the Aztecs new emperor.

Meanwhile, the Spanish completed their escape to Tlaxcala, where they were given assistance and the wounded recovered.  

The joint forces of Cortés and Tlaxcala proved to be formidable.  One by one they took over most of the balance of the cities under Aztec control in central Mexico, some in battle, others by diplomacy.  In the end, only Tenochtitlán and a few small city states remained unconquered or not allied with the Spaniards.

While Cortés was rebuilding his forces and garnering more supplies, a smallpox epidemic struck the natives of the Valley of Mexico, particularly affecting the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán, where the disease raged from mid-October to mid-December 1520.  Between 30-40% of the population died, drastically weakening the Aztec defense.  The Aztec Emperor, Cuitlahuac, contracted the disease and died after ruling for only 80 days.

In late December, the Spanish-Tlaxcalan forces moved to Texcoco, on the eastern edge of Lake Texcoco, and joined with Texcocan allies.  In Texcoco, Cortes built 13 brigantines (two-masted sailing ships) and mounted them with canon, planning on turning Lake Texcoco into a strategic body of water to assault Tenochtitlán.  Cortés now had 84 horsemen, 194 crossbows and muzzle-loaded long guns, plus 650 Spanish foot soldiers.  Additionally, he had 20,000 allied warriors.

Cortés’ siege of Tenochtitlán began in mid-May 1521, with Pedro de Alvarado playing an important role as leader of one of the three Spanish assault groups. Spanish forces cut off Tenochtitlán’s food supply across the causeways and destroyed the aqueducts carrying water to the city.

At first, battles centered on the causeways, where the Aztecs continually attacked the Spaniards trying to advance into the city.  In one encounter, the Aztecs defeated the Spanish forces on a causeway, captured prisoners, and later ritually sacrificed them atop their Great Temple.

But the stranglehold on Tenochtitlán tightened and famine began to affect the Aztecs.  The Spanish received a large amount of supplies from Veracruz, and somewhat renewed, in mid-July, they finally entered the main part of Tenochtitlán.  Despite inflicting heavy casualties, the Aztecs could not halt the Spanish advance.

On August 1, Spanish-Tlaxcalan-Texcocan forces entered the center of the city, and the last stand for the Aztec defenders began.  The Aztec forces were destroyed and the Aztecs surrendered on August 13, 1521.

The stubborn Aztec resistance, had been organized by their new emperor, Cuauhtémoc, the cousin of Moctezuma II, who was captured trying to escape the city in a canoe.

Cortés then ordered the idols of the Aztec gods in the temples to be taken down and replaced with icons of Christianity.  He also announced that the temple would never again be used for human sacrifice. Human sacrifice had been a major reason motivating Cortés and encouraging his soldiers to avoid surrender while fighting to the death.

Tenochtitlán had been almost totally destroyed by Spanish canons, the manpower of the Tlaxcalans, plus subsequent fires during the siege, and once it finally fell, the Spanish continued its destruction, as they soon began to establish the foundations of what would become Mexico City on the site. The surviving Aztec people were forbidden to live in Tenochtitlán and the surrounding isles, and were banished.

Up to 240,000 people were killed in the campaign overall, including warriors and civilians.  Almost all of the Aztec nobility were dead, and the remaining survivors were mostly young women and very young children.  At least 40,000 Aztecs civilians were killed or captured.

After the fall of Tenochtitlán, the remaining Aztec warriors and civilians fled the city as the Spanish allies, primarily the Tlaxcalans, continued to attack even after the surrender, slaughtering thousands of the remaining civilians and looting the city. The Tlaxcalans did not spare women or children: they entered houses, stealing all precious things they found, raping and then killing women, stabbing children.  The survivors desperately scrambled out of the city for the next three days.

The Spanish lost between 450-860 soldiers in the three-month siege of Tenochtitlán, while 20,000 Tlaxcalans perished.

It is estimated that around 1,800 Spaniards died from all causes during the more than two-year campaign - from Veracruz to Tenochtitlán.

Cortés’s victory at Tenochtitlán set in motion the rapid collapse of the Aztec Empire.  The Spanish already controlled lands of the present-day Mexican states of Mexico, Quarétaro, Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, Morelos, Puebla, and Veracruz.  Over the next three years, the conquistadores brought the balance of the Aztec Empire, mainly in today’s Mexican states of Guerrero, Oaxaca, and western Tabasco under Spanish rule and established the colony of New Spain. 

For reference during the discussion of the Spanish Conquest, I include below a map of the current states of Mexico.

After the fall of Tenochtitlán, there was little resistance by the people of the Guerrero area to the Spanish, who were interested in Guerrero’s minerals and coast.  During the Spanish Colonial period, Acapulco became the main western port for New Spain, connecting this part of the Spanish Empire to Asia.

In the Oaxaca area, the Spanish overcame the main Aztec military stronghold only four months after the fall of Tenochtitlán.  For the most part, the indigenous Zapotecs and Mixtecs chose not to fight the newcomers, instead negotiating to keep most of the old hierarchy but with ultimate authority to the Spanish.  Resistance to the new order was sporadic and confined to the Mixtec coastal region; the last major rebellion occurred in 1570.

The complete conquest of Tabasco by the Spaniards was delayed until the late 16^th century due to indigenous uprisings and the Spanish preoccupation with dominating the central valley of Mexico.

During the Colonial era, Veracruz was the main port of entry for Spanish military reinforcements, immigrants from Spain, slaves, and all types of luxury goods for import and export.  Because of the decimation of indigenous populations from European diseases, the Spanish imported between 500,000-1,000,000 West African slaves between 1535 and 1767.  The route between Veracruz and the Spanish capital of Mexico City, built on the site of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán, was the key trade route during the Colonial era.  Veracruz became the principal and often only port to export and import goods between the colony of New Spain and Spain itself.  Until 1778, almost all trade in and out of New Spain had to be with Spain, except for some limited trade with England and other Spanish colonies. 

Hernán Cortés continued to make history in Mesoamerica.  After fall of Tenochtitlán, he was appointed by King Charles of Spain as governor, captain general and chief justice of the newly conquered territory.  From 1524-1526, he headed an expedition to Honduras where he defeated Spaniard Cristóbal de Olid, who had claimed Honduras as his own, a move Cortés regarded as treason.  Cortés was then suspended from his governorship, over concern for his increasing reach for power.  In 1528, Cortés sailed to Spain to appeal to the King, and returned to Mexico in 1530 with new titles and honors, but with diminished power. In 1536, Cortés explored the northwestern part of Mexico, discovered the Baja California Peninsula, and explored the Pacific Coast of Mexico.  He retired to an estate about 30 miles south of Mexico City, acquired several silver mines southwest of Mexico City in today’s Mexican state of Guerrero, and on a second trip back to Spain, died of pleurisy in 1547.

Hernan Cortes, Spanish conquistador extraordinaire.

Western Mexico (1522-1531/1590):  Michoacan, Chichimecas.  To the northwest of the Aztecs, was the Michoacan region, where the dominant indigenous group was the Tarascan state.  The Tarascans were present in the region as early as 100 BC and developed into a sophisticated culture with a high degree of political centralization and social stratification by 1350.  The Tarascan capital and largest settlement was at Tzintzúntzan on the northeast arm of Lake Pátazcuaro.  The Tarascans controlled some 90 plus cities around the Lake.  By 1522, the population of the basin was as high as 80,000, while the population of Tzintzúntzan was about 35,000.  Extensive irrigation and terracing were built to make such a large population sustainable on local agriculture. The Tarascans built monumental pyramids and were among the few Mesoamerican civilizations to use metal for tools, ornamentation, and weapons. 

Second only to the Aztec Empire, the Tarascans controlled an empire of almost 30,000 square miles, occupying the present-day Mexican state of Michoacan, and parts of Jalisco and Guanajuato. Contemporary with, and an enemy, of the Aztec Empire, the Tarascans blocked Aztec expansion to the northwest. 

The Tarascans controlled an empire of almost 30,000 square miles.

In 1522, a Spanish force was sent into the Tarascan state, where the Taracans submitted without a fight, and for their cooperation, were granted a large degree of administrative autonomy.  But in 1530, believing that the Tarascans state were supplying the Spanish with only a small part of the resources extracted from the population, the Spanish sent to the Tarascan state conquistador Nuño de Guzmán, today known for brutality against the indigenous peoples and instituting a system of slave trade, where captured natives would be sent to the Caribbean.  Guzmán, a rival of Cortés, and a past high ranking colonial administrator, arrived at the Tarascan State with a large army of Spaniards and indigenous allies. Unsuccessfully looking for gold, Guzman tortured and then executed the Tarascan ruler, beginning a period of violence and turbulence.  During the next decades, Tarascan puppet rulers were installed by the Spanish government.

Guzmán proceeded to launch a fierce campaign north into the lands of the Chichimeca, a nomadic people who invaded central Mexico from the north in the 12^th and 13^th centuries.  Typically, the conquistadors attacked an Indian village, stole the corn and other food, razed and burned the dwellings, and tortured the native leaders to gather information on what riches were in the area.  For the most part, these riches did not exist.  Undeterred, Guzmán continued the violent suppression of the Chichimecas and in 1531, established the Kingdom of New Galicia, covering the present-day Mexican states of Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Colima, Jalisco, Nayarit, and Zacatecas.

Because reports of Guzmán’s’ treatment of the indigenous people had reached Mexico City, Guzmán was arrested in 1536, held as a prisoner for more than a year, and then sent to Spain.  He was released from prison in 1538, and returned to Mexico in 1539, where he remained on the Spanish payroll as a bodyguard until his death in 1558.

Spanish conquistador Nuno de Guzman was known for his brutality against indigenous peoples

Guzmán’s violent conquest left Spanish control of the area unstable, and from 1540-1554 full war reemerged between Spanish settlers and the native peoples of the area.  In 1546, the Spanish discovered silver in the Zacatecas region and established mining settlements in Chichimeca territory, which altered the terrain and the Chichimeca traditional way of life.  The Chichimeca War (1550-1590) started with the natives attacking travelers and merchants along the “silver roads.”  This war would become the longest and costliest conflict between Spanish forces and indigenous peoples in the Americas.  Thousands of Spanish died and mining settlements in Chichimeca territory were continually under threat.  With no military end in sight, in 1590, Spanish authorities launched a full-scale peace offensive by offering the Chichimecas lands, agricultural supplies, and other goods.  This “peace by purchase” finally brought an end to the war.

Personal Note:  The above description of wars between Spanish settlers and the indigenous people of Chichimeca perhaps doesn’t fit in the discussion of the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica, because the region was “under control” of the Spanish government much earlier, in 1531.  But I included it here due to Conquistador Guzmán’s impact on the region.

Eastern Mexico (Tabasco, Chiapas, Yucatán), Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador (1524-1697):  Maya. The Spanish conquest of Mayan territory was sporadic and difficult to complete because there was no overall capital city or central political authority to conquer, only widely dispersed independent groups, with many population centers and villages inaccessible in dense jungles.

Mayan civilization extended from eastern Mexico into Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.

The conquest of the Maya regions began in 1524, when Hernán Cortés sent Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado into the highlands of Guatemala and ended 175 years later in 1697 with the final defeat of the Itza people in the Guatemala lowlands.  Over the course of the conquest, there were continual military incursions into the Maya highlands, lowlands, and Yucatán; many battles; and often rebellions and put-downs after initial conquests.  The Spanish exploited fragmentation of the Maya by taking advantage of pre-existing rivalries between various groups and making strategic alliances, as they did in conquering the Aztecs.  Many peoples were relocated to suit the aims of the conquerors.  The Spanish persisted in the eradication of Mayan culture, stealing or destroying their ceremonial objects and burning their writings.  Disease and forced labor also took a horrible toll on the indigenous populations. 

Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado led initial Spanish efforts to conquer Guatemala.

Legacy of the Spanish Conquest

The initial shock of the Spanish Conquest was followed by decades of heavy exploitation of the indigenous peoples, allies and foes alike.  During the Conquest, Spaniards legally enslaved large numbers of natives - men, women, and children - as booty of warfare, branding each individual on the cheek.  Native slavery was abolished in 1542, but persisted into the 1550s.  Due to some horrifying instances of abuse against the native peoples, Spanish religious leaders suggested importing black slaves to replace them, but saw even worse treatment given to black slaves.

Over the years, Colonial rule gradually imposed Spanish cultural standards on the subjugated peoples. The Spanish created new settlements laid out in a grid pattern in the Spanish style, with a central plaza, a church and the town hall housing the civil government. This style of settlement can still be seen in the villages and towns.  

The introduction of Catholicism was the main vehicle for cultural change, and resulted in a blend of Catholicism and native religious customs.  Catholic missionaries campaigned against cultural traditions of the natives; Old World cultural elements came to be thoroughly adopted by indigenous groups.  The Aztec education system was completely abolished and replaced by a very-limited church education.

Immediately after the Conquest in central Mexico, the Spanish continued the Aztec system of ruling elites, and tribute-paying commoners. The indigenous nobility were largely recognized as nobles, with privileges, including the noble Spanish title Don for noblemen and Doña for noblewomen.

The greatest change was replacement of the ancient Mesoamerican economic order by European technology and livestock; this included the introduction of iron and steel tools to replace late stone age tools, and of cattle, pigs and chickens.  New crops were also introduced; however, sugarcane and coffee led to plantations that economically exploited native labor. During the second half of the 18th century, adult male full-blooded natives were heavily taxed, often being forced into debt peonage.

In the 16th century, perhaps 240,000 Spaniards entered the conquered Mesoamerican regions.  They were joined by 450,000 in the next century.  Unlike the English-speaking colonists of North America, the majority of the Spanish colonists were single men who married or made concubines of the natives.  As a result of these unions, mixed race individuals known as mestizos became the majority of the Mesoamerican population in the centuries following the Spanish Conquest.

Mesoamerica was not the only region of Spanish conquest in the Americas. The overseas expansion was initiated under Spanish royal authority to secure riches, expand trade, and spread the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions.  The Americas were to be invaded and incorporated into the Spanish Empire.

Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Caribbean, and continuing over three centuries, the Spanish Empire would expand across the Caribbean Islands, half of South America, most of Central America, and much of North America, including present-day Mexico, Florida, and the Southwestern and Pacific Coastal regions of the United States.